|
BEGINNER'S SYNTHESIZER FAQ
Version 0.3
05/01/97
(C) 1997 Chad Gould
email: cgould@gate.net
This document is intended for informational purposes
only. All rights reserved - commercial, for-profit
reproduction and distribution of the FAQ is prohibited.
Accuracy is not guaranteed to be 100%, FAQ represents
authors opinions but I try to come as close as possible. All
trademarks in this FAQ are registered to their respective
companies. Any suggestions, modifications, or other
critiques of the FAQ can be addressed by writing to cgould@gate.net.
I. Introduction
Synthesizers and electronic instruments
have been in common use in today's music for at least 30
years, and have been used in serious compositional works for
much longer than that. Today's compositions feature more
synthesizers than ever - from the all-electronic blips found
in today's techno music, to the stylings and pads behind
today's pop music. As a result, many people become very
interested in synthesizers, and want to learn how to play
them.
But today's synthesizers can seem complicated at first.
It is hard to figure out, for the beginner, which
synthesizer to choose from, and to understand all of the
possible features in a synthesizer. What makes a JV1080
different from a Nord Lead? What are all these terms in the
feature list and what do they mean? What is MIDI?
At the same time, I did not see on the Internet a very
good, comprehensive source for explaining the world of
synthesizers. Being one who runs a large MIDI and
synthesizer link page, I was getting way too many questions
asking the same thing (the most common being "what
synthesizer should I purchase?", but many other
technical questions as well). It would be much nicer to
simply type all of this information once and refer them to a
FAQ. So I wrote this. (:
I'm hoping I didn't make this too complicated. I wanted
to include a lot of information, to make it interesting
reading and complete; at the same time, I want to make it
somewhat basic as well, to help out beginners. I hope I have
succeeded, and haven't turned anyone off by the fact that
this thing is, well, voluminous... if not, well, write on
ways to improve it! (:
Although I have been involved with synthesizers for a
long time, I can't claim to have knowledge on EVERYTHING.
Therefore, if you notice any significant mistakes or
omissions, please email me at . With that, on with the
show...
A) Definition
From Webster's New World Dictionary, Second College Edition:
Synthesizer - A person or thing that synthesizes;
specifically, an electronic device containing filters,
oscillators, and voltage-control amplifiers, used to produce
sounds unobtainable from ordinary musical instruments.
Why the word synthesizer? Well, it is evolved from the
word synthesis. Synthesis means to put together parts or
elements so as to form the whole, according to Webster's
Dictionary. That is the general concept behind a
synthesizer: To put together parts and elements of a sound,
from sound generating devices to sound processing devices,
and form a whole sound.
B) A Brief History of Synths
Although the synthesizer concept is a relatively new one,
electronic instruments have been with us for a long time.
The world's first electronic instrument was invented by Leon
Theremin in 1920. The aetherphone, as he first called it,
later became known as the theremin. It is one of the
few electronic instrument that does not require contact to
play - you simply wave your hands in the air around two
antennas to raise and lower the volume and pitch. It has
been used in countless places (the soundtrack to
"Forbidden Planet", the song "Good
Vibrations" by the Beach Boys), and is still used
today.
Most of the rest of the electronic instruments produced
in the 20s, 30s, and 40s were of the electric organ variety,
although there were some notable exceptions (such as the
Trautonium and the Ondes Martenot, both invented in the late
1920s, and the RCA Mark I and II synthesizers, created
around the 1950s). Particularly of note is the Hammond
electronic organ. The first Hammond electronic organ was
introduced in 1935; the Hammond name has since become
legendary.
It was around the 1950s that electronic instruments
became treated more seriously. This is because in the
academic music world, the musique concrete style
established itself. Musique concrete revolved heavily around
taking sounds out of the real world, mixing them, and
processing them to form a composition. This style heavily
revolved around the newly invented way of recording media:
Magnetic tape. Sounds could be recorded, have their pitch
raised or lowered, processed through a variety of methods,
spliced, looped, and a piece could be formed. The elements
found in musique concrete still exist today, in the form of
digital samplers (which can do what tapes do, only with a
greater precision and accuracy). Many tape studios started
looking beyond the real world for sounds, and began
collecting a wide variety of electronic devices:
Oscillators, amplifiers, and other signal processing
devices. It was only natural for synthesizers to come along
and make a headway. Several small companies (among them,
Buchla and Moog) opened up in the middle 60s to make
modulars for this small market.
Synthesizers had existed prior to the late 60s, in
various forms (the RCA Mark I and II synthesizers are good
examples of this). But until this period, synthesizers were
very expensive, and restricted only to more obscure,
academic compositions. Electronic synthesizer builders were
mostly hobbyists searching for new ways to create sound. In
the late 60s, however, popular musicians themselves were
searching for new sounds. The Beatles, for instance,
experimented with tape loop ideas in several songs, and used
a Mellotron (an early "sampler" that used tape
loops to create its sound) on others. Film composers were
looking for ways to create unique sounds as well. From this,
commercial synthesizers (such as the VCS-3
"Putney" and the Moog Minimoog) were born, and the
music world would never be the same.
Today, synthesizers are used in almost all forms of
music. From providing the backbone of today's most popular
music, to providing the strange sounds for the most
experimental music, synthesizers are at the forefront of
today's music technology. The synthesizer has undergone some
radical changes, and now can be found using a wide variety
of techniques and methods for creating its sound. But the
basic concept remains the same: To start with an
electronically generated signal, process the signal through
electronic methods, and emerge with a unique sound that
often cannot be duplicated by any other instrument.
There are many types of synthesizers out there. From time
to time, you will run into many of these terms describing
various ways a synthesizer generates its sound. Although
sometimes people refer to a synthesizer by its synthesis
technique (covered in section IV), it is more common to
refer to a synthesizer by a generic methodology that a
synthesizer uses. This can lead to debates (ie, "The
Roland Alpha Juno 1 isn't an analog, it's a
digitally-controlled hybrid!"), and isn't technically
the most correct... but it does find a way to separate
certain bleeping machines from other bleeping machines. (:
With that in mind, here are the generic categories most
people use to describe synthesizers...
The earliest synthesizers made were not made in a self
contained unit like the modern day synthesizer is. Each
unit, instead, was self-contained in an individual box (a
module, hence the term "modular"). Units were
available that both created a signal (VCOs, noise
generators) and processed a signal (VCF, VCA, etc.). These
modules were mounted in large racks and connected to each
other with 1/4" cables. Because you patched together
connections with these cables, a particular sound was called
a "patch"... and the name has stuck with us to
this very day.
These modular synthesizers were usually very big,
sometimes taking up entire rooms. Compared to the portable
keyboard, a modular synthesizer seems like a burden... until
you realize that with a modular synthesizer, you are not
restricted to one particular path. Modular synthesizers have
the greatest freedom in terms of composing patches, and for
this reason they are still used in the studios of film
composers and studios that require the ability to make new
sounds.
The Buchla and Moog modular synthesizers were the
earliest to enter the commercial marketplace; although the
Buchla technically was the first, the Moog remains the most
famous, for two reasons. The first is that the Moog
synthesizer got noticed through the enormously popular
release of "Switched On Bach" by Walter Carlos
(now known as Wendy Carlos). The second is that the Moog
modular synthesizer defined the standard which all analogs
use to this very day: All functions of the synthesizer are
controlled by a control voltage (CV) of one volt per octave.
Even today, modulars are still being made by small companies
(such as Doepfer, Serge (which in some way resembles the old
Buchlas), and many others).
Modular synthesizers, of course, are quite impractible
for the performing musician (although several artists have
and do use a modular on stage)... for this reason, the
pre-wired synthesizer was born in the early 70s. Basically,
the pre-wired synthesizer took the most common modules of a
synthesizer, routes it through the most common path, and
adds various control options (for different patches) to the
panel through a variety of methods. The result was a
synthesizer that was much more practical for musicians, and
the bulk of what you will find in the market.
Nowadays, a new type of modular synthesizer is emerging:
A virtual modular synthesizer. This modular synthesizer
allows you to create the sound on a computer, using virtual
"patch cords" and "modules" that
synthesizer a very similar sound to a modular, without all
of the bulk and cables.
A synthesizer with analog-based circuitry. These
synthesizers, in general, use analog-style units
(oscillators, filters) that are controlled by voltage (like
the old modulars, only pre-wired). Analogs are known for
having a warm, pleasing sound, compared to most digitals.
Early analogs, such as the Minimoog, are easily called
that: they all have what is called discrete circuitry
(transistors, resistors, etc. - no integrated circuits).
Later synthesizers, however, used other, more compact analog
technolgies such as op-amps and linear integrated circuits.
In the early 80s, the terminology began really getting
distorted when synthesizers came out with separate sections
controlled by digital technology (for things such as patch
memory). Often the oscillators themselves would be
controlled by some digital circuitry, to help keep the
oscillators in tune. Instead of having VCOs (voltage
controlled oscillators), they are often referred to as
having DCOs (digitally controlled oscillators - see the
Roland Juno series for an example of that). And things got
complicated even further by having synthesizers, such as the
Korg DW-8000, that have oscillators driven by short, looped
samples, but have analog filters! (These synthesizers are
often called "analog hybrids".)
Basically, synthesizers that use digital methods to
generate sounds.
"Digital synthesizers" have been around since
the late 1950s, when RCA introduced the Mark I synthesizer
to the world. The "synthesizer" consisted of a
variety of analog components (oscillators, etc.) - the catch
is that the components were digitally controlled. In order
to use this program, you had to tediously program in a piece
on punchcards; this severely restricted its use.
Some commercial digital synthesizers came out in the late
70s for musicians with deep pockets (notably the New England
Digital Synclavier workstation and the Fairlight sampler),
but it wasn't until the Yamaha DX7 came out that people took
notice. The Yamaha DX7 packed an amazing amount of
synthesizer power (realistic instruments, nice sounds) for a
$2000 price tag. The result was a huge success that
redefinied the shape of the synthesizer market.
Digital synthesizers are very similar, technique wise, to
analogs. Usually, they start out with a sound source
(anything from a sample to a computer-generated wave) and
process them through various digital algorithms. The result
is often more realistic (due to the samples), but many
complain digital synthesizers sound "colder" than
analogs.
Some synthesizers have been done using digital synthesis
methods that do not rely on samples. The Yamaha DX7 is a
good example of this (it used digital methods to do a type
of synthesis called frequency modulation (FM) in much
greater quantities and with much greater precision than was
possible with an analog synthesizer of the equivilent size);
the Roland D-50 is another (it allowed you to select either
short "PCM" samples or digitally-generated
waveforms, and process them through digital filters and
digital VCAs). However, today's digital synthesizers
primarily use samples to generate their sound. Thus, we come
to the two types of sample synthesizers...
The majority of the synthesizers on today's market are
sample-based synthesizers. These are synthesizers that
contain hard-coded samples (stored onboard in ROM on the
synthesizer). Synthesizer patches are created by using these
hard coded samples as a sound source, and processing the
signal through various filters, envelopes, etc. They are
known in general as sample-playback synthesizers (although
some sound card manufacturers call the process "wavetable").
Although these can be a limiting synthesizer type to some
extent, they tend to have several advantages. First of all,
its cheap. ROM is cheap, and digital technology is getting
cheaper. Second, polyphony is cheap and extensive on these
machines: Some sample-playback synthesizers can play up to
64 notes at one time! Third, its very realistic sounding
(due to the use of samples). Fourth, they are easy to use:
Simply call up the patch you want and play. However, they
often lack real-time control and warmth, and you are limited
to the samples in the ROM. It's a judgement call. For
beginners, I do think they are the best choice, but for
those wanting to create their own sounds, I don't...
Some of these synthesizers are called workstations.
Workstations are nothing more than synthesizers which
several related components of a synthesizer (sequencer,
effects processor, data storage) can be found on one unit.
Although there are certainly analog workstations out there
(the ESQ-1 was an analog hybrid workstation), nowadays, all
workstations sold today are entirely sample-based (with
other synthesizer techniques looming in the background, such
as sampling and physical modeling, sometimes).
Sample-based synthesis is nice, but what if you want to
use your OWN samples as the sound source? This is where the
sampler comes in. A sampler is a device that can take any
sound that is put into it, "sample" it, process
it, and play it back. Whether it be a short vocal clip from
President Kennedy's inaugural address, or a multilayered
synthesizer sample that is processed to do crazy things,
samplers give you considerable freedom to make any sound you
want.
The downside? Samplers are expensive, and more difficult
to program than other categories. Samplers also have the
most storage consideration, and often come with the ability
to add internal hard drives, or connect to external storage
devices via SCSI. Another downside is that they lose the
contents of their memory when turned off, just like a
computer, and you must reload the samples from a floppy disk
or hard drive to begin using the sounds again. Still, they
are a worthy piece in a synthesizer arsenal.
Nowadays, samplers are available that make use of your
computer to generate sounds. On the shareware market, there
are a few programs (like Simple Sampler and Mellosoftron)
that allow you to trigger WAV files easily with MIDI, and
play it back through your sound card. On the professional
level, there are program/hardware packages that allow you to
do sampling (at a professional price) with your personal
computer, with much of the processing a hardware sampler
has.
JLoffink@bangate.compaq.com adds:
The distinction between sample-playback synthesizers and samplers can
become blurred, as there are some sample-playback synthesizers with small
amounts of user RAM for loading samples, just as there are some samplers
with Flash ROM options that allow users to load limited amounts of samples
into memory that keeps its contents even after the instrument is powered
off.
Although its not to the point where a $99 Soundblaster
can replace a $3500 Emu (no processing abilities with most
of the shareware programs), the sampling shareware is
certainly an alternative available for those looking for a
cheap way to include a sampler in their songs.
Another cheap alternative is what I call a "phrase
sampler". Samplers like the Roland MS-1 fall into this
category... they have limited amounts of samples and
polyphony, but more real time controls available than the
average rackmounted sampler, and are well suited for DJ
work.
A third type of digital synthesizer has emerged in recent
years, and is continuing to develop. In the early 90s,
Yamaha released the first of these types of synthesizers.
Called the Yamaha VL1, it modeled wind instruments (such as
saxaphones) very well. The synthesizer was not a big seller,
but the sound it produced was incredibly realistic, much
more realistic than sampling synthesis. Thus, modeling has
become the new way of looking at synthesis.
The idea behind modeling is to use software code to
produce the sound, instead of using hardware methods. This
concept has been around for some time (an experimental
program called Csound has been available for computers for a
while), but only recently has the idea blossomed in any
community but the experimental. Currently, the trend has
been to model analog sounds. The Clavia Nord Lead claims to
use modeling to produce its analog sounds; Yamaha is
planning to release a Nord Lead competitor called the AN1X,
and Roland already has released its Nord Lead clone (the
JP-8000). The Korg Prophecy solo synthesizer does both
analog(ish) modeling AND some realistic synthesizer
modeling.
A huge array of software synthesizers that use only the
PC to generate the sound have also cropped up. Many of the
synthesizers are like Wavecraft (which models a modular
through software), and cannot be played real-time. However,
some newer software (such as the Rebirth 338, which
real-time models two 303s and an 808) is offering the
promise of real-time synthesis on a personal computer.
The possibilities for this type of synthesizer remain yet
to be seen.
This term refers to special units that only contain drum
sounds in them (usually). The drum machines have an internal
sequencer that allows you to program in a drum song, and
play it back. This makes drum machines nice for people who
have a limited amount of musicians: You can pre-record and
play back rhythm parts while you play back live on top of
them. (I don't consider drum machines a substitute for the
real thing, though) Drum machines also have a special charm
in rap and hip-hop music, due to the more
"electronic" sound a drum machine has and the fact
that it is able to keep a beat perfectly.
There are several types of drum machines available. Very
old drum machines (Roland TR-808, CR series) use analog
synthesis as a way to make drum sounds. Later, drum machines
started using digital samples to make the sounds; although
some machines exist that use both methods (Roland TR-909),
nowadays, almost all drum machines on the market are
sample-based. A few drum machines, however, allow you to
load your own samples in to be used as rhythms (Emu SP1200,
Akai MPC60 / MPC3000, Linndrum 9000, etc.), thus opening up
another dimension of rhythms. Some drum machines nowadays
are modeled (ie, the Novation Drumstation).
Early "drum machines", FYI, were not
programmable (ie, you had only a few preset rhythms), and
were mainly designed as accompaniment for organ players. The
first commercial drum machines that had programmable rhythms
were the Roland CR and TR series. Interesting that many
machines in the TR series are still used today. (:
The better drum machines have touch-sensitive pads (so
the machine can record the velocity struck at), and have
ways of changing the pitch, envelope, and duration of the
drum (and the ability to record it into the internal
sequencer realtime.)
More technical (but more correct) is the methodology that
a synthesizer uses to arrive at its sound. Of course, there
are differences between various synthesizers even within
techniques... which gives certain synthesizers a different
sound over other types of synthesizers. With that in mind,
here is the various synthesizer types around...
One of the most common synthesizer techniques, found in
most analogs and some other types of synthesizers (such as
modeling synthesizers). This type of synthesis is achieved
by taking a tone with lots of harmonics and filtering them
to arrive at the desired tone color. Most sample-playback
synthesizers are technically subtractive.
Exactly the opposite of subtractive synthesis. Basically,
putting together a number of different wave components
together (partials or harmonics) to arrive at a particular
sound. A specific type of synthesis is Fourier synthesis,
which involves mixing together a large number of sine wave
harmonics to achieve a specific sound.
A type of synthesis form which produces a sound through
short, cycled samples.
The technique varies between various synthesizers. For
the Microwave and PPG Wave, multiple short waveforms stored
in a table can be sequenced through a single note, producing
rich sounds. The synthesizer also provides the ability to
interpolate between various waveforms. For synthesizers like
the DW-8000 and ESQ-1, "wavetable" refers to the
fact that the synthesizer uses single-cycle waveform samples
to produce its sound. For synthesizers like the Wavestation,
the reference is to small-sample chunks to produce the
sound.
Sound card manufacturers often refer to their soundcards
that use sample-playback synthesis as "wavetable"
(because the samples are stored in a table in RAM.)
Also known by many other names (AI2 synthesis, etc.), the
idea behind this type of synthesis is to take a sample of
some kind (whether it be of a synthesizer, acoustic
instrument, etc.), and play that sample back as the
oscillator (instead of an electrically generated wave). This
tends to generate very realistic sounds; the problem is,
without the ability to create your own samples (ie, all the
samples are stored in ROM), the sound generation options can
be limited. Usually, this is an extension of subtractive
synthesis.
A sampler attempts to solve this problem by
allowing you to create your own samples and play them back
via various synthesis options. Samplers are technically
sample playback synthesizers with RAM instead of ROM inside;
but by enabling you to create your own sounds, the samplers
open up a world of new possibilities.
The sample playback synthesis era started with the Roland
D-series of synthesizers, which used the term "Linear
Arithmetic", implying an additive paradigm. The
D-series, like most sample-based synthesizers, is more
subtractive than additive though.
A new form of synthesis that has emerged in recent years.
Instead of trying to simulate through an abstract method,
the synthesis method tries to physically model the
instrument itself, thus providing a very accurate
instrument. However, it is often the most difficult to
program - and consequently, the hardest to provide an
effective user interface for. Nevertheless, analog physical
modeling synthesizers recently have appeared with the
"classic" easy-to-program knobs et al.
FM (Frequency Modulation) synthesis, widely popularized
by the DX7 and other Yamaha instruments, is a unique type of
synthesis. The basic concept behind FM synthesis is that you
modulate the frequency of an audio oscillator by the
frequency of another audio oscillator. By stacking various
oscillators on top of each other, you can get a wide variety
of sounds. Yamaha also introduced a modified version of FM
called RCM (Realtime Convolution and Modulation); they are
very similar, though.
Phase distortion was a technique introduced by Casio for
the CZ series of synthesizers. The basic concept is to morph
various waveforms from their original waveform (saw, pulse,
etc.) into a sine wave and back.
Waveshaping is a technique popularized by such
synthesizers as the Korg 01/W. Waveshaping allows you to
apply a non-linear function on the original signal, thus
offering a wide variety of effects.
A way that some of the more powerful synthesizers can
create nice sounds through a simple concept. Up to a certain
amount of oscillators can be mixed together and (often)
realtime controlled through a device such as a joystick. It
makes for some nice ways of producing expressive sounds.
Wave sequencing is a feature popularized by the Korg
Wavestation. It allows you to sequence through programmable
patterns of samples - a concept similar to the
"loop-the-loop" partials found in the D-50 and the
cycling available in the PPG Wave / Microwave, but with a
lot more control, with each sample assigned a level and
duration.
A type of synthesis unique to Kurzweil K2000, K2VX and
K2500 instruments that combines elements of analog synthesis
(filters, pulse width modulation, hard sync, distortion,
amplitude modulation) with digital shaper and wrap
functions. Multiple configurations of signal paths are
available, giving connectivity comparable to a modular
synthesizer.
At this time a more abstract concept, granular synthesis
is similar to wave sequencing except the snipplets are so
short that an actual tone is developed, instead of the
rhythm that wave sequencing produces.
Knowing what type of synthesizer you are looking for is
nice in itself. But what do all of these terminologies mean?
NOTE: See VI. Part E for effects terminology. Effects I
consider a feature of the synthesizer, not the synthesizer
itself.
32'/16'/8'/4': A carryover from the organ days,
simply referring to the octave at which the patch is set at.
8' is the normal sound; 16' is one octave down, 32' is two
octaves down, etc. Likewise, 4' is one octave up.
+24db/+12db/+18db:This simply refers to a specific
filter type, characterized by how abrupt its cutoff slope
will be. This also refers to the amount of poles that are in
a filter.
ADC: Analog to Digital Converters. Used in
samplers to create digital data (ie, where a sound wave is
represented solely by numbers) out of a sound input. The
better the bit resolution of the ADC, in general, the better
sounding the conversion will be.
ADPCM: An audio compression routine for digital
audio.
ADSR: The basic envelope of a synthesizer. This
type of envelope is probably the most common type,
especially on early synthesizers. Incidentally, each letter
stands for a basic parameter of the envelope: Attack Decay
Sustain Release.
Algorithm: In computer terms, a set of
instructions designed to accomplish a specific task. This
computer term has been applied to synthesizers, though, by
such synthesizers as the Yamaha DX series. The Yamaha DX
series uses the term algorithm to describe how the FM
operators are set up and processed.
Amplifier: A circuit which controls the volume
that a particular signal has.
Amplitude Modulation: A process that allows you to
modify the amplitude (or level) of a sound using various
other signal sources. This allows you to produce a range of
tremolo or timbre modulation (wah-wah) type of effects. Also
known as AM.
Attack: In an ADSR envelope, the control that
determines the time it takes to get to the maximum attack
level.
Bandpass Filter: A filter that lets through only a
narrow band of frequencies.
Bank: Generally refers to a collection of patches
grouped together.
Baud Rate: The number of bits of computer
information transmitted per second.
Bit Resolution: When people refer to a "16
bit machine", this is what they are referring to.
This refers to the amount of bits it takes to store a sample
inside of a sampler. A bit, by the way, is the
smallest unit of a computer; it is a digital piece of
information that is either 1 (on) or 0 (off).
BPM: Beats per minute, the usual tempo
measurement.
Buffer: Temporary storage for a patch. You can
play it, edit it, etc. without harming the RAM or ROM where
the patch came from. Most synthesizers with memory send the
patch to the buffer when you call it up.
Carrier: In FM synthesis, an operator that
"carries" the main audio output of the sound
without modifying (modulating) anything.
Cent: Used to describe pitch tuning. A notation
where one hundred cents equals a half step.
Clock Rate: Usually refers to the sample rate at
which keyboards play the pre-recorded ROM samples back at.
Combination: A special synthesizer patch that uses
multiple patches, spanned across various portions of the
keyboard and routed through the same FX, to create a very
rich sound.
Controller: A device that is capable of producing
some change in the.phpect of sound. See the whole glossary
of controller terms below (VII. Part D)
Cutoff Frequency: The frequency in which a filter
is set to. Beyond this frequency (in a lo-pass filter, the
most common), the sound is cut off.
DAC: Digital to Analog Converter. Used for
samplers and sample based synthesizers. In general, the
better the bit resolution of the DAC, the better sounding
the samples.
DCO: Digitally Controlled Oscillator. Similar to
VCO, except that the tuning of the VCO is somehow
computer-stabilized (e.g. clocked to a single CPU, etc.)
Decay: In an ADSR envelope, the control that
determines the time it takes to go from the maximum attack
level to the sustain level (set by the sustain control).
Delay: Sometimes refers to delay time before a
specific keyboard section starts (such as a delay time in an
envelope or LFO); also, a specific FX type, see section VII
Part E.
Delay Time: Usually refers to the delay before a
specified section begins working.
Detune: These parameters usually allow you to have
some of the oscillators be slightly out of tune with the
other, creating a fatter sound.
Default patches: The patches that are loaded into
the synthesizer when you first buy it.
EG: In some synthesizers, they use the term
"Envelope Generator" instead of Envelope; this is
a shortened abbreviation for this.
Emphasis: Sometimes used to describe resonance.
Envelope: The signal processing device in a
synthesizer that controls amplitude over a time. In
not-so-technical terms, it gives sound its shape. It tells
when the synthesizer volume should go up and down in volume,
and the time it should take to go up and down. Early
synthesizers commonly used an envelope type called ADSR, but
modern synthesizers tend to have a lot more complicated
parameters. The basic concept, however, remains the same.
Envelope Tracking: A function that changes
envelope length, time, etc. depending on what note is
played.
Filter: A device that blocks certain frequencies
while letting other frequencies through.
Frequency: The pitch of a tone. In oscillators (VCOs,
etc.), they usually refer to the initial starting pitch. In
filters (VCFs, etc.), they usually refer to the setting of
where the cutoff frequency begins. In samplers, it sometimes
is used to specify the sample rate. Frequency is measured in
Hertz, where one Hertz (Hz) is one cycle per second.
Frequency Modulation: In addition to being a basic
synthesizer technique used by some synthesizers, many
synthesizers have a feature which allows you to modulate the
frequency (pitch) of an oscillator or filter, producing rich
and complex tones. Also known as FM.
Keyboard Tracking: A function on some keyboards
that determines how the area of the keyboard affects tonal
qualities.
Hertz (Hz): A way of measuring frequency, where
one hertz is one cycle a second.
Hipass Filter: A filter which only lets
frequencies HIGHER than a certain cutoff point through.
Inverter: In some synthesizers, a circuit that
reverses the normal voltages in the circuit, so that +5V
becomes -5V, etc., for special effects.
KHz: 1 Khz = 1000 Hz.
LFO: Stands for "Low Frequency
Oscillator". An oscillator that in general is NOT
triggered from voltage; it runs continuously at a very low
speed (although many synthesizers have a retrigger option
that allows the LFO to be reset for each note played, or
when you want it). Some common applications: Putting an LFO
on the VCO pitch (for vibrato) or putting an LFO on the VCF
filter cutoff frequency (for slow filter sweeps).
Loop: An option in a sample that allows you to
repeat a sample at a certain point when it reaches a certain
point in the sample. In other words, a way to repeat a
sample forever. The basic sample loop simply loops the
sample from a previous point in the sample when the sample
reaches a designated end point; this is called a forward
loop or a sustain loop. Other types of loops
include the reverse loop (a loop where the sample
loops from a point near the end of the sample to a point
near the beginning; in other words, reverse of the forward
loop) and the bi-directional or ping-pong loop
(a loop that plays from the starting point to the ending
point, reverses and plays from the ending point to the
starting point, and continues ping-ponging back and forth).
Some samplers allow two loops: a loop for sustaining a note,
and a second loop when a note-off message is received
(called the release loop). Also: In a sequencer, an
option that allows you to repeat a sequence infinitely.
Lowpass Filter: A filter which only lets
frequencies LOWER than a certain cutoff point through.
Matrix Modulation: A type of system which allows
you to connect several selectable sources by several
selectable destinations by a certain amount. Common on many
synthesizers today.
Mix: Often used to describe the amount of volume
between one source and another. Often used to describe
mixing two oscillator volumes. Also used to describe mixing
two samples.
Mixer: A device that combines two or more audio
signals.
Modulator: In FM synthesis and elsewhere, a
modulator that is used to modify the output of another
operator, creating rich complex tones. This process is known
as modulation.
Multisample :A "patch" that is made up
of several samples spanned over the keyboard. For example, a
piano patch could be made up of seven samples, each at an
octave point of the piano, spanned over the keyboard. This
creates a more realistic sound.
Noise: As it says; random frequencies spitting out
to produce static-like sounds. Useful in some patches.
Notch Filter: A filter that only lets everything
BUT a certain notched portion of frequencies through.
Operator: In FM synthesis, a digital sine wave
that is combined with its own envelope generator. Kind of
the FM way of describing a VCO.
Oscillator: A generic term describing the part of
the synthesizer that produces the basic tone or sample of
the patch. In the old days, an oscillator referred to a
specific electronic circuit that oscillated back and forth
in voltage, but nowadays, some sample-based synthesizers use
this term.
Pan: The placement of the sound between the left
and right stereo channels of a synthesizer.
Partial: In a Roland synthesizer, refers to one of
the building blocks. Think of it as an oscillator with an
independent filter, amplifier, etc.
Patch: A synthesizer sound composed of specific
settings. In the old days, you used to patch together
modules with patch chords, hence the term formed. Later,
"patches" were dialed up on knobs. With the advent
of memory, however, patches usually refer to a stored patch
inside the synthesizer memory.
PCM: Pulse Code Modulation. A really technical way
of describing a sample, often specifically referring to
samples hard-coded into ROM. Sample-based synthesizers are
sometimes called "PCM synthesizers".
Pink Noise: Noise that has passed through a
low-pass filter.
Pole: As in "2 pole filter" and "4
pole filter". The more poles a filter has, the more
abrupt its cutoff slope will be, and the more accurate the
filter will be in reducing unwanted frequencies.
Port :Refers to an electrical connector of some
kind; also refers to a program written for one machine that
is translated into another.
PPQ: Pulses Per Quarter-Note. A way of measuring
the resolution of a sequencer; the higher, the more accurate
notes can be recorded.
Preset: A patch that is built into a synthesizer
patches that cannot be changed.
Program: Another word for a patch. In modern
sample-based synthesizers, often refers to the patches which
use only a single voice in a synthesizer, and are the basic
blocks for multimode and combination mode patches.
Pulse: This refers to square waves whose width is
somehow being controlled. IE, a normal square wave looks
like:
|-----| |
| | |
| | |
------ ------|
Pulse waves can look like this:
|-| |
| | |
| | |
-------- ---------
PWM: Pulse Width Modulation. A parameter that
controls the width of the square waves. See pulse.
Q: A common name for resonance.
Ramp: On some synthesizers, a smooth modulation
that best resembles the attack portion of an envelope.
Rate: The speed at which a particular device is
operating at.
Rate Scaling: See scaling.
Reconstruction Filter: From Keyboard
Magazine's web site: A lowpass filter on the output
of a digital-to-analog converter that smoothes the
staircase-like changes in voltage produced by the converter
in order to eliminate clock noise from the output.
Release: In an ADSR envelope, the control that
determines how long it takes to go from the sustain level to
0 when the note is released.
Resolution: With apologies to Keyboard
Magazine's web site, because they said it best: A
function on a filter in which a narrow band of frequencies
(the resonant peak) becomes relatively more prominent. If
the resonant peak is high enough, the filter will begin to
oscillate, producing an audio output even in the absence of
input. Filter resonance is also known as emphasis and Q. It
is also referred to in some older instruments as
regeneration or feedback, because feedback was used in the
circuit to produce a resonant peak. It produces a very
distinctive sound in the analog filter process, and is an
important part of techno music, among other things.
Resynthesis: Analyzing the sample and adding
frequencies to make the sample sound more real. Used on some
synthesizers as a technique.
Ring Modulator: A type of mixer that takes two
signals and produces either the sum or difference of the two
signals. Cliched in the 70s but not heard of much in the
modern era.
Sample: A piece of analog audio encoded digitally.
Samples are what make possible much of today's music, as
they enable people to take "snipplets" of sound
and produce either realistic-sounding instruments or
astonishing effects. Technically, a sample is simply one
"reading" of audio data, but most people refer to
samples as a full snipplet.
Sample-and-Hold (S&H): From Keyboard
Magazine, once again: A circuit on an analog
synthesizer that, when triggered (usually by a clock pulse),
looks at (samples) the voltage at its input and then passes
this voltage on to its output unchanged, regardless of what
the input voltage does in the meantime (the hold period),
until the next trigger is received. In one familiar
application, the input was a noise source and the output was
connected to oscillator pitch, which caused the pitch to
change in a random staircase pattern. The sample-and-hold
effect is often emulated by digital synthesizers through an
LFO waveshape called "random."
Sample Rate: The rate at which a sample is
recorded. It determines how many "samples" are
reserved to store a particular sample in the machine. For
example, a sound sampled at a sampling rate of 44,100 will
require 44,100 samples per second to store the sound. The
higher the sample rate, the higher quality the sample will
be, with less of a phenomenon known as aliasing (a
situation where unwanted frequencies appear in the sample,
due to the lack of information present in the sampled data).
Each sample will require a certain number of bits to store,
depending on the machine. From this, you can calculate the
storage space a sample requires (ie, a 16 bit machine
requires 16 bits per sample. Monophonic samples require one
channel; stereo samples require two. Since 8 bits equals one
byte, you can determine that a one second sample will
require 88,200 bytes at a rate of 44,100 / 16 bit,
monophonic; and double that for stereo samples).
Scaling: Often used to shorten or widen signal
processor output (such as the rate of the envelope or the
volume level) over a period of time in a particular fashion.
Software Version: Just the version number of the
particular synthesizer's operating system.
Split Points: Sometimes used as a term to describe
a multisample; a split point is where one sample becomes
another.
Suboscillator: An oscillator that is set at
(usually) one octave below the normal oscillator; used for
bass effects.
Sustain: In an ADSR envelope, the control that
determines the level that the sound is played at while the
note is being held, and after the other envelope portions
(Attack and Decay) have been cycled through.
Sync: Provides a way for you to synchronize the
device with something else. For example, LFO sync in
synthesizers often allows you to clock the beginning of the
LFO cycle to key-on timing. Sync is used in the Roland x0x
series to allow both sequencers to start at the same time
with the same tempo.
Timbre: In certain Roland synthesizers, a building
block in the patch. Also a way in describing the tone
quality of the sound.
Tracking Generator: A synthesizer feature found on
Oberheim and Alesis synthesizers. Here is a long
explanation, thanks to Analog
Heaven's archives:
The tracking generator is a non-linearizer for control signals. Imagine the
range of a controller as a line from minimum to maximum:
___---~
___---~
___---~
___---~
~
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
(sorry for the rough ASCII graphics)
Anyway, imagine this line as being a broken rubber band stretched
between two thumbtacks, one at each end. (I indicate where they go
with tilde marks '~' in the above picture.) Now insert three more
tacks into the band, one at the center and two more halfway between
the center and the ends. So you have a line of five tacks describing
the straight line of the controller range, with zero effect at one end
and maximum effect at the other, right? (The caret marks '^' show
the horizontal positions of the five markers.)
Well, the tracking generator lets you grab any of those tacks and move
it up or down from zero to maximum, stretching the band out of shape
and turning it into a zigzag, a quasi-envelope structure, or
whatever. Each point on the curve has a value from 0 to 63, and values
are set independently for each point. The default, the ordinary
unaltered line, has these values:
___---~
___---~
___---~
___---~
~
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
0 15 31 47 63
We could also draw a curve like this:
~ ~
/ \ / \
/ \ / \
/ \ / \
/ \ / \
/ \ / \
/ \ / \
~ ~ ~
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
0 63 0 63 0
Or like this:
___---~------~------~
___---~
~
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
0 15 31 31 31
Or even like this:
~
/
/
/
/
/
/
~------~------~------~
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
0 0 0 0 63
Well, what are these curves good for? Remember, they control what
happens to a control signal that's normally linear. So you can take a
linear signal and use it in different ways by routing it through the
tracking generator first. The two-bump example can be applied to a
stage of an envelope to create double-tonguing effects. The flattened
line can be applied to a mod wheel output to give it a
quasi-logarithmic throw. And the last example can be applied to a
voltage pedal to produce a footswitch-like 'step' when the pedal is
pressed all the way down (ideal for simulating a hihat). And there
are lots of others as well. Experiment!
Transpose: A function that allows you to shift the
entire keyboard up and down a key. Usually, the
transposition is done in semitones (or one note in a key; ie,
+1 transposition would make a C a C#, a C# a D, etc.).
Track: On tape, a band of tape used for recording
audio. Normal stereo cassettes, for instance, have 4 tracks
(2 tracks for each side, one track for each stereo channel).
In a sequencer, this refers to a similar concept: A
selection of music that can be recorded, sequenced, and
played back separate from the other tracks.
Tremelo: A periodic change in amplitude (unlike
vibrato, which is a periodic change in frequency).
Tune: A way to adjust the sound of the
synthesizer. Early analogs required you to tune through an
analog knob, sometimes tuning each individual VCO; most of
today's modern digitals, in contrast, allow you to tune with
a menu, and usually express the tuning in terms of +/- cents
off of the standard tuning.
VCA: Also known as Voltage Controlled Amplifier,
this is an amplifer whose magnitude can be controlled by
voltages. IE: Attaching the voltage of an envelope will
produce a patch whose volume corresponds to the envelope
shape; attaching the gate voltage, on the other hand, will
produce a patch whose volume goes on when the note is struck
and off when the note is released.
VCF: Also known as Voltage Controlled Filter, this
is a filter whose cutoff frequency can be controlled by
voltages. This means that attaching the voltage of an LFO to
it will produce wowing sweeps; attaching an envelope voltage
will give the filter a particular shape; etc.
VCO: Also known as Voltage Controlled Oscillator,
this simply means an oscillator whose pitch is controlled by
a certain control voltage. IE: Attaching an LFO voltage will
produce a pitch that goes up an down.
Velocity Sensitivity: A measurement of how fast
each key is descending.
Vibrato: A periodic change in frequency. Sometimes
used as a term for an LFO, specifically a fixed LFO set at a
certain speed designed to perform vibrato-like effects.
Wave: A basic sound coming from an oscillator, or
another name for a sample.
Waveform: The generated signal produced by an
oscillator or a looped sample.
Waveshape: The shape of the wave being produced,
usually referring to oscillators. Common oscillator
waveshapes are square waves, pulse waves (square waves whose
width is controlled somehow), sawtooth (ramp) waves,
triangle waves, sine waves, and random / noise waves. The
shapes look like (in rough ASCII form):
Square Pulse Sawtooth (Ramp)
---- -- -- - /|
| | | || | / | /
-- ---- -- ----- / |/
Triangle Sine Noise (random)
/\ /-\ \ /. : .
/ \ / | | | :\./ /: \
/ \/ \_/ \_/ /. -0_/ : :
White Noise Unfiltered noise.
Beyond what actually produces the sound (the signal
generators) described in section V, here is a list of what
you can expect when you look at a keyboard specification
list. What does all those things mean? Here's where you find
out.
First, some simple terminology:
Combination Mode: A mode where several
"program mode" patches are spanned through various
sections of the keyboard, and combined through one FX unit.
Monophonic: A synthesizer that can only play one
note at a time. This is not necessarily a bad thing; these
synthesizers often have very rich sounds for their lack of
voice abilities.
Multi Mode: A mode in some sample-based
synthesizers that allow you to play multiple programs at
once (usually 16, the number of MIDI channels available).
Generally, all the multi mode programs use patches created
or called up in program mode, and are all routed through the
same FX unit.
Polyphonic: A synthesizer that can play more than
one note at a time. Not necessarily multitimbral, though.
Polyphony: The maximum amount of notes a
synthesizer can play at one time. Of course, a note could
contain more than one oscillator. Confusingly interchanged
with voices; it is advisable, before buying a synth, to find
out whether the polyphony listed describes the amount of
notes played with a typical patch, or whether the polyphony
listed decreases with a typical patch.
Program Mode: The mode where the basic building
blocks of a synthesizer are created. Each patch in
"program mode" is usually very basic.
Unison Mode: A monophonic mode on some polyphonic
analog synthesizers used where all of the oscillators of the
synthesizer are triggered on the same note, creating a nice
fat sound.
Voice: Two ways it is used: 1) An oscillator
played in the synthesizer, and 2) The maximum amount of
oscillators a synthesizer can play at one time (as in 32
voices). Sometimes confusingly interchanged with polyphony.
Most modern sample-based synthesizers are patterned
largely after the hugely successful Korg M1 and 01/W. These
sample-based synthesizers defined how future sample-based
synthesizers worked. But, as a result, they often confuse
people, fooling them because of the way they are set up.
Modern synthesizer are often set up into three modes:
"Combination" modes, "Program" modes,
and "Multi" modes. The building block around all
of this is a program mode patch. These basic patches consist
of the basics (oscillators, filters, etc.), and are accessed
via the "program mode". "Multi mode" is
a mode designed for sequencers. In this mode, you can play
multiple patches of "program mode" banks, each on
a separate MIDI channel. By using a sequencer to control
each MIDI channel, you can create a composition simply by
using this method. However, most synthesizers only come with
one FX box (with one-four chained FX) that you have to route
all multi-mode patches through. "Combination
modes" are more geared towards playing the keyboard
solo - they take several patches created in "program
mode", span them across various layers of the keyboard,
route them through 1 FX box, and create a very lush patch
(with less polyphony, and no ability to do multimode-style
sequencing unless the keyboard has a "combination
copy". They're good for demonstrations though.)
A warning: Any changes made to program mode patches will
often affect the combination mode patches! If you like your
combination mode patches, be careful. Because combination
patches are harder to play in multi mode (although many
synthesizers contain a way to copy them over), I usually
ignore them myself. (: Also, the terminology on some
synthesizers may be a lot different (I'm using Korg 01/W /
X3 / X5 terminology), but the basic gist is the same.
Memory is a critical part of today's synthesizers. Memory
is used to store patches, both presets and user-defined
patches. An important part of today's synthesizers,
therefore, can be how many ROM presets it has. The more ROM
space it has, the greater amount of space the synthesizer
has to store preset samples. Of course, the quality of
samples is more important than the quantity, but it may give
an indication of how many ROM samples are in the
synthesizer.
RAM is critical for any samplers. RAM is where all of the
samples are going to be stored. Early samplers often used
proprietary RAM chips to store the samples in - a pain in
today's market. Fortunately, most samplers nowadays can
handle SIMMs. SIMMs are exactly the kind of memory chips
that you find in your local computer store. Of course, SIMM
requirements vary from sampler to sampler, and you may not
like the idea of opening up your sampler to install the
SIMMs to begin with... in which case you see your local
dealer for memory upgrades.
Of course, there's also patch memory, the place where
synthesizers store the settings of the synthesizer patches.
This memory can either be RAM (user-modifiable patches) or
ROM (preset patches). And, of course, there is memory for
modifying the global settings of the synthesizer. Most
specification lists give the number of patches available,
and how many of them are preset ROM (unmodifiable) and
user-modifiable RAM.
Most synthesizers have a memory protect mode, FYI,
that must be turned off before you begin modifying patches.
Usually, when you turn the synthesizer on, memory protect
mode defaults to on so you don't accidentally overwrite your
favorite patch when playing around.
When it comes to packaging, there are two basic models
that today's synthesizer comes with: Either it is sold with
a keyboard, or the synthesizer is mounted in a rack unit.
Some music items are sold as a "tabletop" unit (ie,
most drum machines); these items come in a small, compact
box instead. There's not much to be said about that package
(except that, like the rack, it sometimes requires external
input from a MIDI source). However, the keyboard and the
rack have some considerations in mind.
For the keyboard, the following distinctions are
important:
* Number of keys. A piano sized keyboard is 88
keys. Most synthesizers seem to be 61 keys (5 octaves), in
contrast.
* Size of keys. Almost all synthesizers nowadays
are sold with "full-sized keys" (sized like
pianos), but portables often come with "half-sized
keys", which are not as large (and more compact).
* Action. These determine exactly how the keyboard
feels to your touch. The three categories in this field are
weighted, synth-action, and semi-weighted. The distinctions
are as follows:
* Weighted keys make a great attempt to feel like
a piano (which, since the key is pulling on a lever to
strike a hammer on the piano string, feels weighted down).
They are often loaded with various mechanical devices to
simulate the piano action, and might be best for those used
to playing on a piano. In my opinion, they are more
expressive, but difficult to do fast solos with.
* Synth action keys have no weighting at all. In
other words, they feel exactly like organ keys: Just there,
with no weighting at all. They are not as expressive to me
(but I grew up as a piano player...), but they make it very
easy to play lightning fast solos. The cheapest keyboard
option.
* Semi-weighted action is a compromise between the
two. While the keys may be weighted down somewhat to help on
the expressiveness, the feel is a lot different from a
piano, and may be alright for fastness. It's also a lot
cheaper than fully weighted keys.
* Zones. Some synthesizers offer the option to be
able to transmit various portions of the MIDI keyboard on
different MIDI channels. This makes it convenient if you
hook the keyboard up to an electronic instrument that
supports more than one patch at once (a multitimbral
keyboard): You can easily set it up so half of the keyboard
is playing a piano, and another is playing a saxaphone, or
other combinations. Not all instruments support zones.
For the rack-mounted unit (also known as a module),
there are a few considerations that you have to be aware of.
First of all, a rack mounted unit generally cannot be
directly controlled (by a sequencer, etc.) - it usually is
able to be externally controlled by either a MIDI keyboard
or a sequencer. So rack-mounted units are not good for those
who do not already have a keyboard. However, they do take up
a lot less space.
Almost all synthesizer units use the conventional rack
definition. The rack for these synthesizers are 19"
wide, with at least 1/2" on each end reserved for
mounting on the rack rails. For height, a rack package uses
the U specification, where 1U is equal to an instrument
that's 1 3/4" in height. (And, consequently, 2U
instruments are 3 1/2" in height, etc.) Some
instruments are considered to be 1/2U, where the instrument
only takes up half of the width (ie, 9 1/2" wide) while
still being 1 3/4" in height. There is no standard for
depth.
Commercial rack-mount boxes are available from SKB and
other companies; it is cheaper to build your own, however,
if you have the skills. Some companies sell rack-rails that
allow you to build the box yourself with little effort; the
commercial rack-mount boxes tend to be better, though, for
transport. Your mileage may vary.
Aftertouch: A control feature of the synthesizer
that allows you to generate additional effects by pressing
on the synthesizer key after you have released a note.
Sometimes the effect is subtle (a little more vibrato, for
instance); other times, it's quite noticeable (if the
aftertouch is applied to the filter, for instance).
Breath Control: A device that allows you to blow
air through it to produce various effects when connected to
a synthesizer. A way of producing more realistic wind
instruments.
Channel: Or MIDI Channel. Each MIDI cable has 16
channels which a synthesizer can transmit and receive data
on them. One must match the channels in the external device
to the channels in the synthesizer to get the correct data.
Channel Aftertouch: Aftertouch that is applied to
ALL notes on a given MIDI channel, instead of each note
having a separate aftertouch value.
Channel Pressure: Same as channel aftertouch.
Continuous Controller: Used to describe pedals
that have a range to them (such as pedals that control the
volume of the synthesizer). The pedal transmits data within
a certain range (such as 0-127).
CV: Control Voltage, a way of controlling older
analog synthesizers externally. Usually used to determine
the pitch of a synthesizer. Usually set to a particular
value. See Section VII Part E for a full explanation.
DIN / Sync: Early Roland instruments used this
protocol to control their synthesizers. See Section VII Part
E for a full explanation.
Footswitch: A little pedal that can be pressed up
or down, either being on or off. Think of it as like a piano
pedal. It is usually used for sustain, although it can be
used for many other features.
Gate: Another way of controlling older analog
synths externally; it is either on or off. Usually used in
conjunction with control voltages (CV) to determine when a
note got turned on and off. See Section VII Part E for a
full explanation
Glide: See portamento.
Legato: Not a feature, but a vocabulary word. (:
When you are holding down a note before you hit the next
note and release it, you are playing legato.
MIDI: A communications protocol that allows one
instrument or device to control another instrument or
device. But it's more than that; this FAQ devotes an entire
section to it! See section VII.
MIDI Clock: A timing reference sent out by MIDI
cables; can be used to coordinate devices together.
MIDI In: These inputs get connected to a MIDI Out
port of another device to receive data from that MIDI Out
port.
MIDI Out: These inputs get connected to a MIDI In
port of another device so that the keyboard can transmit
data to it.
MIDI Thru: These ports mirror (somewhat exactly)
what is received via the MIDI In port, so the keyboards can
be "daisy chained" to a certain extent.
MTC: MIDI Time Code, a way of transmitting SMPTE
timing data over a MIDI cable for synchronization.
Modulation Wheels: A wheel that you can control to
produce a certain effect. Unlike pitch wheels, which center
in the middle, these wheels usually center at 0 (for no
effect). Most often used for vibrato, but can be used for
many other things as well!
Multisample: To use several samples, spanned
across various portions of the keyboard, in one patch. This
creates a more realistic sound.
Omni: In this mode, the instrument is able to
receive in all MIDI channels simultaneously.
Pedal: Unlike pianos (whose pedals are described
as "footswitches"), this usually describes a pedal
that transmits amounts in a certain range (0-127, for
instance), for purposes such as controlling volume (or other
things).
Pitch Bender: A little wheel that exists on most
synthesizers. By raising and lowering the wheel, you can
raise and lower the pitch. These pitch bends can even be
recorded and played back via MIDI. Neat, eh?
Polyphonic Aftertouch: Aftertouch which is applied
to each individual note, as opposed to channel aftertouch (aftertouch
applied to only one channel).
Polyphonic Pressure: See polyphonic aftertouch.
Portamento: A function where the pitch will slide
over smoothly from one note to another instead of jumping
over the pitches.
Pressure: Same as aftertouch.
Ribbon Controller: A special type of controller
where placing your finger on a specific portion of a thin
"ribbon" (an electrically sensitive strip) to send
controller information to the synthesizer.
SDS: The MIDI Sample Dump standard format. A
convenient way of transmitting samples over MIDI to be
exchanged with other samplers.
SMDI: SCSI Music Data Interchange. A specification
for sending SDS samples over SCSI.
SMPTE time code: Stands for Society of Motion
Picture and Television Engineers. A type of code used for
synchronizing film and video tape to audio tape. Often used
nowadays to synchronize MIDI machines and tape deck
recorders as well.
Staccato: Another pure vocab word. (: Releasing
all notes before hitting the next note.
Sustain: As in a piano, a sustain pedal holds down
(sustains) the notes as if you were holding them on the
keyboard, until the pedal is released.
Sweep Inputs: See continuous controller.
Trigger: Yet another way of controlling older
analog synths externally; similar to gate.
Velocity: How hard you hit the keys. Some
keyboards are able to interpret velocity sensitivity; some
are not.
Vibrato Wheel: Sometimes used for Modulation
Wheel.
1/8" Plug / Jack: Same as the 1/4"
plug/jack, only the diameter is 1/8" instead. Used
mostly for consumer applications (such as headphones).
1/4" Plug / Jack: The standard synthesizer
connection. A large piece of metal that has a nice
bulb-shaped tip on the end, that (guess what!) is 1/4"
in diameter! Can either be two-conductor (unbalanced, mono)
or three-conductor (balanced, mono or stereo).
AC Adapter: A little (hah!) cube that plugs into
both your synthesizer and your power plug. This cube
converts AC power into the DC power that synthesizers
prefer. It also takes up valuable space on your outlet.
ADAT: An 8-track digital audio tape (DAT),
popularized by Alesis.
Aliasing: A phenomenon that occurs with digital
recording; above the Nyquist frequency, frequencies will get
distorted into frequencies that aren't even there.
Arpeggiator: A type of audio device which cycles
through the notes you are holding down on the keyboard in a
specified fashion. There are numerous types of arpeggiators,
each with several features that can be useful for
improvisation concerts.
Balanced: Audio engineering term. The two legs of
the circuit (+ and -) are isolated from the circuit ground
by exactly the same impedance. Each leg may carry the signal
at exactly the same level but with opposite polarity. They
are usually used with either XLR or 1/4" connectors,
and are good for preventing noise over long distances.
Card: A plug-in memory device, usually used for
storing patches. ROM cards generally have no battery, and
you can't write patches to it; RAM cards generally have a
battery, and you can write patches to it. There are other
card types available, though; one company offers a
synthesizers, for instance, that has plug-in filter cards!
Cassette Backup: Many older synthesizers have a
way of backing up the patches to tape, usually through some
sort of DIN connector that came with it that hooks up to the
microphone input and the earphone output.
Chorus: A style of effects. Used to fatten sounds
up by rotating a portion of the sound on one channel out of
phase.
Clipping: On a sampler, a sample whose volume is
beyond the limits of the sampler's ability to pick it up.
The sample is simply recorded at the maximum volume, or
clipped.
Crossfade: This function in samplers blends a
given amount at the beginning of the loop into an equal
amount at the end of the loop, thus making some harsh loops
sound nicer.
Cross-synthesis: An effect that allows you to
analyze one sound, mix another in, and produce a combination
between the two.
DAT: Digital Audio Tape. A common way of recording
things; its like an audio tape, only the recording is
digital.
Data Dump: Section VII Part B.3 explains this term
fully. Basically, a way of backing up patches over MIDI.
Decibel (dB): For reference, a unit of measuring
the audio signal. The greater the dB, the higher the signal.
Its a logarithmic scale, so the ratio between 120dB and
130dB is higher than the ratio between 110dB and 120dB.
Delay: In effects, an echo that occurs with a
certain period (greater than 50ms, usually) between the
original signal and the echo source. The canyon effect
("HELLO? Hello? hello? h...")
DIN: A type of connector used heavily in
synthesizers. It's a little round connector that contains a
certain amount of pins. MIDI connections, for instance, are
all made with 5-pin DIN connectors.
Digital Output: A special output allowing the
synthesizer to communicate with other digital machines with
the same digital outputs in a digital manner (ie, not first
converted to an analog wave). The theory being that going
all digital will result in no noise developing.
Disk Drive: A device that allows you to insert
magnetic disks in it to save various information (such as
patches, sequencer data, etc.)
Distortion: An effect that distorts the sound,
giving it a grungy feel. Think of a heavy metal guitar
sound. (:
Dry: A signal without effects.
Echo: Another way to describe a delay.
Effects: Signal-processing devices that enhance
the sound through a variety of techniques. Usually contains
such features as reverb, chorus, digital delay, phasing,
flanging, etc. In modern synthesizers, there is a certain
number of FX algorithms (effect types) in them, with up to a
certain number of simultaneous effects (effects that can be
played at once). More is better, in many ways (although FX
quality widely varies).
Equalizer: A device that allows you to emphasize
(boost) certain frequencies while de-emphasizing (cut)
others. Parametric Equalizer allows control of both
the frequencies being cut and boosted and the gain.
Fade: A function in samplers that allows you to
reduce the volume of a portion of the sample to 0 gradually.
Feedback: A condition where the device is
modulating itself. When a microphone feedbacks, it is
picking up signals from a speaker and modulating that to
create that high pitched whine. Other synthesizers use
feedback to create different effects.
Flanger: A type of effect where a portion of the
sound is rotated in and out of phase with another portion of
the sound by varying the delay time. Originally done by
creating a tape delay and holding one of the tape loops
against the tape player flanger, hence the name.
Flash ROM: ROM whose data can be recorded.
Sometimes used in samplers (in the form of Flash RAM or
Flash ROM cards, etc.)
Gain: In samplers and mixers, often another word
for volume.
Groove Quantize: A method of quantizing that is
not as exact as quantization is (but perhaps smarter);
allows room for a "swing" beat.
Input: A jack specifically used for inputting
sounds or controls into the synthesizer, to be processed,
sampled, etc.
Jack: Not the name, but the electronic device that
receives the connector. Also known as "female" for
obvious reasons.
Leslie: A type of effect produced originally by
rotating a speaker in a cabinet. Popularized by Hammond B3s
and other organs.
Line Input/Output: An input or output at line
level.
Line Level: Technically, a signal whose level
falls between -10dBu and +30dBu. The common level that a
synthesizer outputs at.
Multitimbral: A keyboard that can play more than
one patch at once. Early keyboards were NOT multitimbral,
and could only play one sound at once, regardless of the
polyphony they had. Nowadays, through sequencers and MIDI, a
keyboard CAN play more than one instrument at once. These
keyboards are called multitimbral.
Normalize: On a sampler, a command that increase
the intensity of the wave to maximum without distortion
(clipping).
Numeric Keypad: Just as one would expect, it's a
little calculator-like grid which has all 10 numbers
available.
Nyquist Frequency: A theory about digital
recording; the theory says that in order to measure a
particular frequency, the sampling rate must be double of
that particular frequency. In other words, it's the highest
frequency that you can record given a particular sampling
rate.
Operating System: As if computers were enough, now
you find out synths have operating systems too. (: Really,
it's nothing more than the software that controls the
interface and workings of the synthesizer. For today's
digital synths, OS is getting more and more important.
Output: A jack used to deliver the final signal to
a mixer or other keyboard for further processing. Many
synthesizers have more than one output (that can be
assigned) for convenience (so you can assign different
instruments to different FX and EQ routings on the mixer,
for instance).
Overdrive: A type of distortion that is produced
by overdriving the signal and reducing the resulting volume.
Parametric Equalizer: See the equalizer definition.
Phaser: A type of effect where the phase of an
input signal is modulated. Unlike a flanger, this signal
does not rely on a delay, and thus has a different
characteristic.
Phone Plug / Jack: Another name for 1/4"
plugs / jacks.
Phono Plug / Jack: See RCA Plug / Jack
Plug: The electronic connector itself. Also known
as "male" for obvious reasons.
Quantize: One of the sequencer options available;
rounds the values of the notes played to exact values (such
as eight notes, sixteenth notes). Makes things exact but
sometimes computer-sounding.
Quantization Noise: A phenomenon that occurs in
digital samples. If the resolution is bad enough, with low
notes you add partials that don't even exist.
Quickdisks: An old, proprietary, now outdated
format that some older samplers and synthesizers used for
storing data. Not recommended due to the expense of new
Quickdisks in today's market.
RCA Plug/Jack: A very low cost type of connector
that is commonly used in 4-tracks and consumer stereo
equipment. Not very durable or reliable, but very cheap. The
plugs are immediately recognizable: A small hole surrounded
by some insulating material, with a metal outer shell.
Resample: A function that allows you to change the
sample rate of a sample without changing its overall quality
(pitch, etc.)
Reverb: A special FX device that is used to
simulate the continuous echo of a hall, arena, or other
echoing type places. Very similar to a delay.
Reverse: A function in samplers that simply turns
the wave inside out.
SCSI: Small Computers Interface. A high speed
communications protocol that allows electronic pieces of
equipment to communicate to each other. Often used in
samplers for tasks such as storage.
Sequencer: A device or program that allows people
to record information (usually MIDI information) and played
back, with possibilities for editing, quantizing, etc. In
the old days, the only sequencers available were hardware
sequencers that played back a limited amount of notes (ie,
16, 32, etc.) in a repetitive sequence (hence the name).
Today's sequencers are much more powerful in some ways, as
you can compose and score entire symphonies with them.
However, they aren't as real-time controllable...
Sostenuto Pedal: A pedal found on some
synthesizers in which notes are sustained only if they are
held on the keyboard when the pedal is pressed.
S/PDIF: An interface used to directly connect two
digital audio components together so as to allow them to
transmit direct digital audio data to each other.
Splice: In tapes, a term used for cutting pieces
of tape and putting the two pieces together. Sometimes used
in samplers for the same reason.
Split: A mode in which a keyboard is split up
between two or more separate patches.
Step Recording: A way of recording on sequencers
that allows you to enter in notes one at a time.
Swing: In quantization, a parameter that allows
leeway for notes that don't quite fall on the beat, keeping
a certain "groove" that may be in a song.
SYSEX: A form of MIDI data used to transmit
information exclusive to a particular synthesizer. Often
used for MIDI patch dumps.
Time Compression/expansion: Time compression /
expansion is a function used in samplers to change the speed
of the sample without changing the pitch. A very useful
function often heard in a variety of music forms.
Tremolo: A type of effect that cyclically effects
the volume.
Trim: In this sampler function, you select a range
in the sample; everything beyond this range gets deleted
when activated.
Truncate: To cut off the end of a sample beyond a
certain point.
Tuning Tables: A series of programmed tables that
allow your keyboard to achieve various tuning scales. For
example, one table could be set for Arabic tuning, while
another could be set for the standard Equal Temperment scale
most Western songs use.
Velocity Curve: A way of setting how the velocity
of a struck note on a keyboard affects the volume of a
synthesizer.
Vocoder: A real-time effect commonly used in the
late 70s and early 80s. You plug your synthesizer in one
input, and a microphone in another; you play some notes on
the keyboard, and then you speak. Every time you speak, your
voice is combined with the keyboard to make it sound like
the keyboard is talking. A very robot-like effect.
Wah: An effect designed to simulate a "wah"
pedal. Think of the wocka-chicka-wocka effect found on 70s
R&B songs. Think Jimi Hendrix.
Wet :A signal with effects.
XLR: A type of connector, commonly seen in
microphones. A large, three-pinned connector is used for a
nice balanced connection. First manufactured by Cannon.
XFade: An abbreviation for crossfade.
.AIFF: Audio Interchange File Format. A common
standard for transmitting and playing back sample data.
.AU: Sun's method of transmitting and playing back
sample data.
.MID: Also known as the standard MIDI file format.
A commonly accepted format for interchanging sequenced data.
Widely used in soundcards for exchanging songs in the General
MIDI (GM) format.
.VOC: Creative Labs popularized this standard for
transmitting sound data.
.WAV: A common standard for transmitting and
playing back sample data, popularized by Microsoft.
GM (General MIDI): The original standard for
common MIDI files, found on many keyboards and most
soundcards today. Most of the MIDI files transmitted over
the net are in the General MIDI format. It is also a popular
format for game composers, since almost all soundcards can
be worked to be GM. It defines what instruments go where and
minimum polyphony, among other things. Some feel it is too
limiting, though.
GS: Roland's extension to General MIDI, a format
found on modern Roland instruments and soundcards. It is
designed to be 100% compatible with GM while at the same
time containing extra features.
XG: Yamaha's extension to General MIDI, a format
found on all modern Yamaha instruments and soundcards. It
too is designed to be 100% compatible with GM while at the
same time containing extra features.
First of all, some definitions for the front panel
controls and displays:
Attenuator: A pot that specifically turns down the
volume of an input. Often found on modulars.
Button: You press it and it does something. (:
Knob: Same as potentiometer / pot.
LCD: Liquid Crystal Display. Basically, a panel on
the front of the synthesizer that shows a grid of dots. This
grid of dots is used to display letters, pictures, etc. that
show you what patch number you are on, program information,
etc.
LED: Light Emitting Diode. An electronic device
that emits a little light when electricity is passed through
it; available in red, green, yellow, or blue. Like little
red light bulbs; usually used as indicators. Also available
in 8-segment number indicators (for that calculator look).
Pin Matrix: You won't see this except on a VCS 3,
but I thought I'd throw it in. (: The VCS 3 used a compact
grid that you connect with a series of pins to substitute
for patch chords, creating a semi-modular synthesizer in a
compact unit.
Pot: Not the weed variety. (: Short for
potentiometer. A knob that functions as a variable resistor;
but you don't need to know that. All you need to know is
that a pot is what you often are using to control your
synthesizer. Twist the know to change the value.
Slider: Another variable resistor, but instead of
being a knob that you turn to control features, you slide a
little lever up and down.
With the advent of techno, many people are now concerned
with the problem associated with real-time control. Back in
the late 80s, real time control was not as desired of a
feature (the desired feature was
press-patch-number-and-play), but real-time control has come
back in vogue.
Older analog synthesizers often had knobs to control the
sound instead of a digital interface (a LCD that shows menus
and a couple of buttons to page through the menus); this is
nice for those looking for real-time control. There are,
however, synthesizers that have are analog and have no knobs
at all (The Korg Poly 800, Ensoniq ESQ-1, and Oberheim
Matrix 6R to name a few). And there are a few digitals that
have real-time control available (especially with the advent
of techno and its emphasis on real-time control). So don't
assume that, say, a Poly 800 will allow you to make that
nice acid bass-line. (: Today, many newer synthesizers have
front-panel knobs. Many of them are nicer than the old
controllers in some respects.
And don't assume that just because it has a LCD and no
knobs, it is crap. Admittedly, real-time control is MUCH
more difficult, but you can still get some nice sounds. I
think beginners find it easier to g.php onto something
physical, though - programming a synthesizer through sliders
and knobs instead of paging through menus and changing
sounds.
In the early 1980s, synthesizer sales continued to grow.
The synthesizer had become popularized in music, and many
people felt the need to have one. The trouble was, there was
so many standards out there. Even though voltage had become
a universally accepted control standard, even the tuning of
the voltage was different in many synthesizers (1 volt per
octave (linear scale, or V/Oct) was a standard accepted by
Moog and ARP, but other synthesizers used a different
standard entirely (such as V/Hz, or exponential scale, used
in some Yamaha and Korg analogs). A digital standard was
needed that could hook up anything to anything.
The solution came from a collaboration between Roland,
Sequential Circuits, and other companies, to form the
Musical Instrument Digital Interface - MIDI, as it later
became known. The MIDI specification provided a way for
instruments from many different manufacturers to communicate
with each other. It is used today for many control purposes,
but the primary reason MIDI is used today is to record (and
play back) music recorded onto a sequencer. By using MIDI,
you can compactly store an entire arrangement by simply
storing what notes get triggered on which synthesizer at
what time. MIDI thus makes it easy for the musician to
record elaborate pieces (with sequencers) without having the
expense of an elaborate tape track to record passages that
you have done previously. With the sequencer, you open up a
whole new methodology of recording music. No longer do you
have to have a lot of musicians play parts live; for
beginning home studios, no longer do you have to invest
multiple dollars in a large multitrack to create a nice
sounding piece. MIDI helps the process.
To use MIDI, just simply keep in mind the following
basics:
The MIDI Out of a device is used for TRANSMITTING
information TO a particular device.
- The MIDI In of a device is used for RECEIVING
information FROM a particular device.
- The MIDI Thru of a device echoes anything received
through the MIDI In port.
A basic MIDI connection would go something like this,
between a computer and two keyboards:
MIDI IN |<-----| MIDI OUT |
COMPUTER | | SYNTH 1 |
MIDI OUT |----->| MIDI IN | | SYNTH 2 |
| MIDI THRU |------->| MIDI IN |
Be careful about daisy chaining with the MIDI Thru
port! Daisy chaining can be somewhat unreliable with
over 3 keyboards, producing delays caused by data
errors. However, a computer (and other independent MIDI
Modules) can have several MIDI ports (or independent
MIDI connections, each with 16 different channels: It's
like having several Soundblasters, or several MPU-401s)
available, allowing for one to easily hook up many MIDI
units to each other.
MIDI of course is used for a wide variety of other
applications, and it is this that we describe below...
Sequencers are probably the most common application
of MIDI files. A sequencer is a tool used to record
notes and other information that a keyboard or other
device transmits. For instance, you can record on a
sequencer a tune that you just wrote on your
synthesizer. Everytime you play that sequence back, the
sequencer will play back all the nuances of the tune on
your synthesizer: the notes, how hard you hit the note,
etc. However, a sequencer (up until recently) can only
record INFORMATION. In other words, you are not
recording the actual waves of the song - you are only
recording the notes you played, the velocities you
struck the sequence at, etc. The sequence is a much more
compact way of storing tunes than digital audio.
A sequencer often has a variety of aids to help you
compose a tune. Most sequencers have a STEP mode, where
a sequence is recorded in exact steps (ie, sixteenth
notes, eighth notes, etc.). Another feature available on
sequencers is quantization. Quantization allows you to
correct erroneous notes by moving the notes over to
exact points in a beat. (You usually can select the
points, such as eight notes, sixteenth notes, etc.) Many
sequencers have smart quantizations that allow one to
keep a tad of groove in the music (so the sequence
doesn't sound so robotic and exact.) Sequences can
change patch banks on synthesizers, fade volume and
other controllers up and down, insert, blend, and mix
various "tracks" (a track in a
sequencer simply refers to a channel of information that
can be edited and manipulated separately from the other
channels). It makes it much easier to create a score
without the need of extra musicians, and is critical to
beat-driven forms of music (such as techno and
industrial).
Many sequencers have various editing modes available
- such as an event list for displaying all the MIDI
events more technically, and a notation mode that allows
you to edit the piece as if it were a music score.
MIDI has a way of coordinating sequencers as well.
With MIDI comes the ability to have a MIDI clock - a
clock that allows other sequencers to synchronize
themselves to the same clock, so everything has the same
tempo. Most software sequencers and hardware MIDI
sequencers have the ability to synchronize to MIDI, so
one sequencer can control the rest. (You can even sync
the MIDI devices to other DIN/sync, sync, etc. devices
through converters.)
Nowadays, there are sequencers that can integrate
audio snipplets into the sequence. These sequencers
(such as Cakewalk Pro Audio and Cubase Audio) run more
expensive than their non-audio counterparts.
Some software is available that is SPECIFICALLY
designed to help you score a piece easier. It used to be
that in order to produce a score, you had to tediously
copy little dots onto a piece of paper by hand. However,
thanks to the computer, writing a score is a lot easier.
You simply click onto notes and other music symbols, and
drag them onto the staff. You can even import MIDI files
and use them as a starting point for creating a full,
complete score. And printing off multiple copies, or
separating the score into orchestral parts, is much
easier. Software such as Finale are examples of this
type of notation-based software that is designed more
for music publishing than anything else.
One of the nice things about the MIDI protocol is
that virtually all MIDI synthesizers in existence have a
way to transmit the patch data over MIDI. This patch
data is transmitted in a special MIDI code known as
SYSEX. SYSEX stands for System Exclusive
codes, and is used by synthesizers to transmit
information that cannot be transmitted by ordinary
controllers.
Most synthesizers nowadays feature something called "bulk
dump" or "data dump". The
procedure for each of the synthesizers varies, but the
essential gist of it is that you can backup your patches
on any program that has a generic SYSEX manager. The
general procedure is as follows:
- Make sure that the correct MIDI port is selected
on your SYSEX manager, ie the port that has a direct
MIDI connection to the synthesizer. Caution: Most
synthesizers that I've seen do NOT echo SYSEX
through the MIDI Thru port! So be forewarned that a
direct MIDI In - MIDI Out connection may be needed.
- Hit the "receive" button on your SYSEX
manager. (Note: Some SYSEX managers may receive
automatically, see your instructions) On your
synthesizer, perform the "bulk dump"
procedure as described in the manual. The patch data
will now transmit to the computer.
- Save the .SYX data to a file.
- In case of accidental erasure, you just simply
load that .SYX bank you created in steps 1-3. Then,
making sure you have the correct MIDI connections
and port set up, simply transmit that bank to your
synthesizer. (On a few synthesizers, you will have
to press "bulk receive" or something like
that.)
You have now just backed up your patches.
Software sequencers like Cakewalk often contain
general SYSEX librarians; there's also a shareware SYSEX
package called WinSYSEX floating around.
Beyond merely backing up your patches, SYSEX and MIDI
can be used to edit your patches. There are many
shareware programs out there to edit synthesizer patches
easily and efficiently. Several lists, such as the ones
available at Synth
Zone will help you find the editors that are
available out there. There is also a commercial editor
out there called Unisyn; it provides a complete way to
edit and backup patches for hundreds of synthesizers.
On the net, there are many places which offer .MID
files that people can play. In general, .MID files are
nothing more than files created in a sequencer,
generally designed for GM (General MIDI) synthesizers so
that almost everyone with a sound card can play it. The
files are saved in a format known as the Standard
Midi File (SMF). This is a format that was
developed so that sequences can be moved from sequencer
to sequencer. However, they are now being used to create
files that can be distributed over bulletin board
systems and played on any sound card. Micosoft Internet
Explorer has a built in tag that allows you to play MIDI
files on a web page, and Netscape browsers can do the
same thing with a plug-in.
However, there is some confusion on this matter, as
there is more than one MIDI file standard! The two file
types are known as "MIDI Type 0" and
"MIDI Type 1". Technically, type 0 files have
all the data on ONE track, where type 1 files
have multiple tracks. (There is a type 2 file as well,
which organizes the note data into patterns, but it
isn't seen as much).
Most sequencers are built to play General MIDI, Type
1 files primarily. If you have a choice, save your
sequencer data as a Type 1 file.
There are several places to download MIDI files on
the net; see the Internet section for details.
Just because MIDI is used for sequencing, notation,
and music does not mean that these are the only
applications of MIDI! In fact, MIDI is used in a variety
of other media applications as well, such as automated
mixing and light applications.
Although a discussion of all the software available
would take up too much space, of particular interest to
those who want to program customized MIDI applications
is a software package called MAX. MAX is a MIDI
development system for the Macintosh and the PC that
allows you to easily write software that does unique
sets of tasks that cannot be done by ordinary software.
The software is costly, but it is relatively easy to
use... the programming is done by simply attaching
modules to each other in a graphical fashion. For those
needing customized MIDI solutions, the savings on
development time make MAX a worthwhile choice.
Good question. There are several computers competing
for this role. Each computer has its own advantages and
disadvantages. My feeling on this matter is that the
most important thing is how comfortable you feel with
using each computer. The Windows 95 operating system for
PCs strongly differs from the Macintosh System 7
operating system, and that differs from what the used
market computers use considerably. Most programs are now
available for both systems, although there are some
notable exceptions (for instance Cakewalk is ONLY
available for PCs, and Performer is ONLY available for
Macintoshes).
The Macintosh System 7 operating system seems to be
more multimedia friendly, and have more professional
multimedia applications for it (since it has been around
for much longer than Windows for the PC has). On the
other hand, the Macintosh shareware market is much more
limited than the PC shareware market, even for MIDI
programs. The Macintosh seems to be easier than the PC
is to connect MIDI (with the PC, you've got to go
through a lot more B.S. just to get MIDI ports connected
to the system). On the other hand, the PC, as a whole,
is cheaper than the Macintosh.
If you've got a program that you like that's
available on one system only, then I would choose that
system. Beyond that, the computers are surprisingly
similar.
Don't forget the used market! Cubase for the Atari
computers, for instance, is plenty powerful enough for
beginning users -and used Ataris cost a heck of a lot
less than a new PC or Macintosh. Although Ataris are
more limited for other applications, they might be
considered a good computer for those on a budget. They
certainly have all the power many people will ever need.
Composing MIDI files for the net is relatively easy
to do. The best way is to compose it in a sequencer
(such as Cakewalk, Cubase, Performer, etc... or any
number of lower-powered, lower-cost sequencers), and
save the sequence as MIDI Type 1 file (usually, if the
sequencer has a .MID file option, it is a MIDI type 1
unless specified elsewise). Don't save the sequence in
the sequencer's native format: No one else will be able
to play the sequence unless they have that particular
sequencer.
Unless you have a specific audience you are
targeting, try to compose using General MIDI (GM)
instrument definitions. Many sequencers default to
General MIDI automatically when playing back pieces.
To add music to the background of a web page, you can
do it several ways. Microsoft Internet Explorer has the
easiest way of adding MIDI music to a web site, using
the following MIDI tag:
<BGSOUND src="song.mid">
Netscape also offers a way to play MIDI files in the
background, through the use of a plug-in, such as
Crescendo. You can easily use this tag for Netscape
browsers; however, this requires that the server have
the MIDI MIME type configured correctly. If you do not
hear MIDI music with the plug-in installed, chances are
the server doesn't have this MIME type implemented, and
you will have to bug the system administrator to add
it... At any rate, here is the tag.
<EMBED SRC="yourmidifile.mid">
Other alternatives have come about that allow one to
not only play MIDI files in the background on BOTH
Internet Explorer and Netscape, but also allow you to
not worry about server MIME types. The following code,
for example, was taken from Cresendo's web page:
<OBJECT ID=Crescendo
CLASSID="clsid:0FC6BF2B-E16A-11CF-AB2E-0080AD08A326"
HEIGHT=55
WIDTH=200>
<PARAM NAME="Song" VALUE="yourmidifile.mid">
<EMBED TYPE="music/crescendo"
SONG="yourmidifile.mid"
PLUGINSPAGE="http://www.liveupdate.com/dl.html"
HEIGHT=55
WIDTH=200>
</OBJECT>
The method you ultimately choose is up to you.
Oh, for the curious, here is the definition of MIME
type found on the net:
A "MIME" or "Multi-Media Internet
Mail Enhancement" type is a method of indicating to
sending and receiving programs that the data to follow
is of a particular "type" and
"format" which can therefore be interpreted by
programs according to the rules that apply to that
format of data. Which is another way of saying that the
data could be "handed" to the program that
created for interpretation (and/or display).
IE: A program receives a .MID file. It does not know
what it is, so it looks at the MIME types built into the
BOTH the client and the server. If it sees that it is
called a MIDI file on both the server and your computer,
it will interpret it correctly and play it.
MIDI, of course, is not the only control method ever
to have been on synthesizers. Before MIDI, synthesizers
were most commonly controlled by voltage. This voltage
is known as a Control Voltage, or CV. You can
plug a keyboard that produces a control voltage for
every key, and play notes on the synthesizer
accordingly.
Unfortunately, there is no defined standard for the
scaling of this voltage. The majority of synthesizers
used V/Oct, where one octave on the keyboard produced
one volt (linear scale). However, some synthesizers used
V/Hz, where each volt produces an increase in the
frequency of the pitch (exponential scale).
In addition to a control voltage, there was often a
voltage that turned itself on the instant you hit a key,
and turned itself off when you released the key. This
voltage is called a gate voltage. This voltage is
often used to control envelopes, although it can be used
(in some synthesizers at least) on any component.
Another voltage used in synthesizers is known as a
trigger. This is a simple, short pulse that is produced
whenever a note is hit on and off. Triggers are often
used for drum machines (in order to avoid a long,
continuous drum hit) and any application that required a
simple short pulse instead of a long hit.
Aside from MIDI, some other digital standards were
developed, but are very proprietary. One of the notables
mentioned here, however, is Roland DIN/Sync. It is not a
way of transmitting notes, but a way of keeping Roland
(and a few other) instruments in clock with each other.
In that respect, it is more like SMPTE than anything
else. For more information, see the synchronization
section.
For today's MIDI users, there are a variety of
converters out there, built by manufacturers such as
Kenton, PAIA, and more, that convert MIDI signals to
control voltages, gate signals, etc. in a variety of
configurations. Although they can be a bit pricey
(ranging from $100 for a PAIA kit to $500 for a Kenton
top-of-the-line model), they are an excellent way to
integrate your old, MIDI-less synthesizer into your
current setup.
One of the most frequently questions on the MIDI
newsgroups seems to be is there an automatic way to
convert songs to MIDI. Apparently, they are looking for
a nice magical box that they can play a piece through,
and poof, out will come a GM file. (:
The answer, at this time, is that there isn't - at
least for SONGS. The way most people write music for the
net is that they simply listen to the tune by ear, and
play it back. Pitch recognition is an extremely
complicated process beyond simple solos; to recognize
lots of pitches at once is impossible given today's
current software.
There are, however, several products out there that
are able to recognize SIMPLE pitches and convert them to
MIDI information. Products like Autoscore and other
products built into sequencers are able to take pitches
and translate them into MIDI form. For simple things
like a flute solo and a sung voice, they work nicely.
Other products are available that take guitar sounds,
clarinet sounds, voice sounds, etc., and convert them
into MIDI data. While not every instrument has been
MIDIed yet, it's getting closer to that point!
This question is, without a doubt, the most
frequently asked question that I get asked. And yet,
this is one of the hardest questions to answer. Music
has been done in every genre with a wide variety of
genres; it is impossible to narrow the field of
synthesizers down to a select few. Budget constraints
only further complicate the problem.
However, I CAN give general guidelines to purchasing
synthesizers for various genres by highlighting
"legendary" synthesizers in a particular
field. And I CAN give advise on how some artists in a
genre produced a sound. Hopefully, with this knowledge
in mind, you can go to a music store and get the type of
sound you are looking for.
Disclaimer: These are my opinions. Not everyone will
have the same opinions. (: I welcome new opinions to add
to these columns: Email me at if you have anything to
add...
Note that many of these synthesizers mentioned are no
longer in production, and some commend very high retail
prices. For a compilation of used gear prices, check out
the Used Gear price list at http://www.synthzone.com/.
This page is a compilation of prices on used gear sold
through the Internet newsgroups. Another useful web page
is the New Gear price list (http://www.princeton.edu/~casey/newgear.html)
which lists the prices on new gear gathered by Internet
volunteers.
Rock music has used a large variety of synthesizers
in order to get a famous sound. Since there are several
genres of rock and roll, it is best to discuss them
separately.
Early rock and roll was highly descended from jazz
and blues, and consequently used many of its organ
sounds. Hammond B3s were common; so were a lot of other
rock organs. See the jazz/blues portion for more
information on the electronic organs... nowadays, these
organs are only available either used or digitally
simulated.
Many other rock synthesizers enjoyed popularity in
the rock and R&B genre. The Moody Blues got famous
for using the Mellotron tape sample playback machine
("Nights in White Satin"). Emerson Lake and
Palmer made a small modular system (and the similar
Minimoog) famous with the song "Lucky Man".
Pink Floyd, in their early works, not only used the
famous Minimoog, but a British analog synthesizer called
the VCS-3. (The VCS-3 was the primary synthesizer in
Dark Side of the Moon.) And progressive rock artists
(Genesis, Yes, etc.) found synthesizers extremely
appealing, often assembling large quantities of early
analog synthesizers (Rick Wakeman, in particular, is
famous for having giant amounts of synthesizers on
stage, rushing back and forth between them). For vintage
rock lovers, starting out collecting vintage rock
synthesizer instruments may seem rough, since most of
the famous vintage instruments carry a high resale value
and are harder to find in working condition. However, in
the modern market, there are some synthesizers that do a
good job emulating the old analogs (notably the Studio
Electronics SE-1, which emulates the Minimoog, and the
Nord Lead, which tries to emulate everything). Samples
of the old synthesizers are abundant, as well. For those
on a budget, Emu's Vintage Keys series and Roland's
Vintage card for the JV-1080 might work just as well for
you (and, in the case of the JV-1080, you get plenty of
other sounds suitable for rock). But there is a nice
appeal to owning the actual instrument used, despite the
difficulties it may have (no MIDI, no patch memory,
etc.)
As rock moved on, various instruments moved in and
out of vogue. In the late 70s, the Prophet 5 was
enjoying tremendous popularity (especially in the
progressive circles... Peter Gabriel used it frequently,
for instance). The Fender Rhodes electronic piano was
quite popular, too, and was used by such groups as
Supertramp frequently. The Yamaha DX7 came out in 1983,
and it became THE instrument to have - almost all groups
from 1983 to 1987 used one. In 1987, the Roland D-50 and
the Korg M1 came out... the instruments on those two
machines became dominant for the next 4 years. Lately,
though, there hasn't been a particular instrument that
has dominated rock - the only one that has enjoyed some
"dominance" has been the Kurzweil K2000 (sworn
in by modern Pink Floyd and many others). Beyond that,
it's more a question of synth lines that get famous, and
what instruments they use... stuff like Van Halen's
"Jump" (composed supposedly with an Oberheim
OB-X), The Eurythmic's "Sweet Dreams" (synth
line supposedly composed with a Juno 60), Duran Duran
(they used a Roland Jupiter 4 for "Hungry Like the
Wolf"), Depeche Mode (lots of synthesizers, but
they were frequent performers with Emulator IIs), etc.
Oh, and it was a Prophet 2000 that appeared in Revenge
of the Nerds. (:
Today's rock and roll sounds use the synthesizer
mostly for pads and background, as well as realistic
sounds (pianos, electric pianos, some drum sounds, etc.)
Workstations seem to be the most common instruments in
rock lineups today - you can carry only a few
synthesizers around and get the most sounds that you
need. Ditto for R&B, although there is more of an
emphasis on electric piano and bass sounds. With
R&B, it might be nice to have a good analog (or at
least a bassy digital synthesizer) to sample and use.
R&B drums are often totally synthetic, so a drum
machine is often nice to have to free up voices used for
drums on the workstation / synthesizer. Most sounds
(except for basses) seem to be sample based (or at least
could be sampled from an analog synthesizer).
Keep in mind, though, that the warmest pad sounds
(according to many people) come from analogs. So while
building your synth arsenal, you might want to keep an
old used analog (or analog modeler) in mind. I wouldn't
recommend analogs as a starting point, though, except to
retro groups (those who perform old wave and progressive
rock probably would best start out with old, used
analogs, like the ones mentioned above... pricey but
there aren't too many polyphonic analogs / analog
modelers out there right now...).
For beginners, the best advice is to go with a
sample-based synthesizer with a lot of sounds. One
synthesizer that performs some basic pads may be all a
rock band ever needs. Elsewise, a workstation is
probably the best bet, though one should keep other
synthesizers in mind.
Blips and bleeps, filtered sounds, and samples here
and there. Techno is a very diverse genre, but techno
has certain keyboards that fit the genre more, namely
analogs and samplers. But much of techno involves
real-time "twiddling" with the synthesizer,
particularly with the filter cutoff frequency and the
resonance, so your objective should be to get
synthesizers with real-time control.
Certain keyboards in techno have obtained legendary
status, as well. The predominant series of keyboards and
drum machines? A series of drum machines and
synthesizers from Roland that nowadays are often
abbreviated to the term x0x. So, without further ado, to
prevent this question from flying all over the place,
the FAQ presents...
A frequently asked question is "What is all of
the machines in the x0x lineup?" So, without
further ado, here it is. This doesn't count rarities,
prototypes, false sightings, or all the other sort of
silly rumors that go on in the mailing lists. (: As a
note, all of these machines are old things, and the
REALLY popular ones (TR-808, TR-909, TB-303) fetch
rather ridiculous second-hand prices, to the point where
some might moan about it.
SH-101
|
Monophonic lead synthesizer. Its
main attraction was the ability to be
"strapped on" - ie, put around your
neck and played like a guitar. Had a
"modulation grip" that made the thing
look more like a guitar. Red or blue; the only
Roland synth ever to have a 2nd run
(the second run, however, was made a long time
ago).
|
MC-202
|
A monophonic bassline synthesizer
with a 2nd track in the sequencer for
external sources. Really nice sounding bass,
though I don't think the machine was ever too
popular. The MC stands for "Microcomposer"
FYI. It's gotten some play as a TB-303
substitute but I find it nice for other reasons.
(:
|
TB-303
|
THE legendary name in techno
synthesizers. If you have been to a rave, and
you hear this very wet, slick, screaming
synthesizer screaming, often this is it. Acid
compositions love this one. Although all Roland
synthesizers with custom ICs have this sound,
TB-303 lovers will swear by no other. It has
been popular enough for SEVERAL companies to
make "clones" of the TB-303. And to
think, this synthesizer was originally meant to
emulate a bass guitar. (: It did not sell very
well when it was issued, and thus commends one
of the highest prices on the used market of any
synthesizer. Oh, it's monophonic, and has a
funky sequencer. Controlled by DIN sync, which
means that a popular techno combination is to
sequence this machine with one of the TR
machines with DIN.
|
TR-505
|
Far from an analog drum machine,
this is merely a somewhat nice sample-based drum
machine. Has nice punchy bass drums, and a loud
snare that might be suitable for industrial with
enough work. Also has MIDI as well, which is
nice. Not for analog lovers.
|
TR-606
|
Analog drum sounds, like the
TR-808 and TR-909. It's gotten some use in
techno since it can be modified to act like a
TR-808, in some ways. I think it's kind of nice
to get some of the analog drum sound made famous
by the TR-808 and TR-909. Has DIN Sync.
|
TR-707
|
A sample-based drum machine. Not
bad as far as a sample-based machine goes, some
of the samples need work but can be improved
with FX. It has both DIN Sync AND MIDI, which
makes it popular for controlling some of the
Roland synthesizers.
|
TR-808
|
Hip-hop's favorite drum machine,
the way to make the boom. A totally analog drum
machine, and one of the original rhythm
composers. Fairly popular among electronic
composers when it was released (aside from
Roland's CR-8000 and related, it was the first
programmable drum machine), it remains popular
today. In techno, it has a softer boom sound,
and nice claps.
|
TR-909
|
Like the TB-303 is THE popular
techno synthesizer, the Roland TR-909 is THE
popular techno drum machine. The bass thump in
many songs is either a TR-909, or a TR-909
sample - the TR-909 has a much harsher thump
than the 808. Added to this is a very nice set
of hi-hats, claps, and bells, and you have a
very nice sound for techno. It has MIDI and DIN
Sync.
|
Also notable in the x0x series is the TR-727 drum
machine (which had percussion geared more towards Latin
rhythms). Also note: When people say 303, they usually
do not mean the MC-303. (: Also note: There
was no 404.
Techno songs have been made merely with this
equipment - with people syncing up various machines (so
the tempo of the rhythm is the same - ie, people syncing
a 909 rhythm to a 303 bassline), creating patterns on
both machines, and playing with the filter.
Fortunately, not all is lost if you cannot afford the
x0x techno synths. (In fact, some would argue that these
sounds are cliched.) There are plenty of other ways to
get a similar, although not identical, sound. The TB-303
has been emulated fairly completely by a couple of
machines (the Syntechno TB-303, the TBS-303), and a
number of other monophonic bass synthesizers have come
along that allow you to not only make a TB-303 like
sound but explore other bass sounds in techno (Novation
Bassstation, Deep Bass Nine, Doepfer MS-404, etc.). For
the TR-808 and TR-909 sounds, Novation has come up with
a product called the Drumstation that emulates these
drum machines. There are several software synthesizers
(such as the Rebirth 338, among others) that allow
emulates these synthesizers as well.
Aside from some of the x0x series, general analog
synthesizers are popular. For some reason, the old
Roland analog synthesizers (Roland Juno 106, Juno 60,
Jupiter 6, Jupiter 8, etc.) are fairly popular in
techno, but in general, if it has knobs, it can be used
for techno. The 4-op FM synthesizers (most popular among
them the Yamaha DX-100, but also including the DX-27,
21, TX81Z, etc.) have become somewhat popular due to
their ability to produce jungle-like bass tones and
dissonant clangs. Korg M1 sounds (and MC-202 / SH-101
sounds) were popular for a while in house, although they
have gone more out of favor. I have seen many other
synthesizers at techno concerts (Oberheim Matrix 12,
Korg Prophecy, Clavia Nord Lead, and the Korg MS20, to
name a few)... analog modelers (such as the Clavia Nord
Lead, and probably the upcoming Yamaha AN1X) are popular
as well.
Popular too are samplers. Samplers produce vocals,
and also can be used to process tones from an analog
synthesizer (which generally has limited polyphony). The
better samplers nowadays have resonant low-pass filters
which can do a decent job at producing the techno-like
filter sweeps. Many techno groups (especially
drum-and-bass groups) also sport a large variety of drum
machines (or at least several drum machine samplers.)
The route to a techno arsenal may seem expensive,
considering all of this equipment! My personal advice
for a beginning techno artist, in general, is to get a
sampler and an analog synthesizer with real-time
control. The type of synthesizer you want depends on
genre; for example, acid composers will want a TB-303 or
(more likely) one of the clones, but other genres may be
better off with other types of synthesizers. Knobs are
critical for techno, as most techno songs rely on some
form of real-time tweaking. A good sampler, particularly
one with a lowpass filter with resonance, can help make
up for the lack of synthesizers in your arsenal. A drum
machine can help free up polyphony used by drums on the
sampler.
I would personally avoid the many sample-based techno
machines on the market unless you have a budget.
Machines like the Yamaha CS1X, Emu Orbit, etc. are nice
and cheap, and they are a great machine for someone who
wants not only techno sounds but a general purpose
synthesizer. However, they tend to be a lot more
limiting than analogs or analog modeling synths. You can
do a lot more with other equipment (ie: Drum machine,
cheap polyphonic paddy analog, a nice acidy monosynth,
and you can create some nice songs for under $1300.).
Nice for the price, though - beginners who are short in
cash may find this the best bet.
Ye olde sampler, and ye olde sampler. That's the
primary thing an industrial artist needs. Industrial is
a realm of music that focuses primarily on the ability
to create your own sounds, particularly noisy and
dissonant clangs and bleeps. A sampler is the best way
to accomplish this. It's nice to have a sampler to
perform live easily with, as well. I've seen many
industrial artists use the Ensoniq ASR-10 (a nice,
relatively inexpensive keyboard sampler with a sequencer
built in). Other keyboard samplers, from the old but
nice Emulator II, to the real expensive Kurzweil K2500S
and Emu eIVk, are also good in that regard. There
unfortunately aren't too many keyboard samplers out
there.
Beyond that, grabbing a bundle of programmable
synthesizers are nice. Particularly of interest are
analog synthesizers with easy-to-program knobs; most of
the bass in today's industrial is done by sampled (or
real) analog synthesizers. (Nine Inch Nails, for
instance, heavily uses the Clavia Nord Lead nowadays.) A
way of producing distortion (via an FX box) helps as
well. Getting a multi-FX box can be nice (so you can
produce weird phasing type of stuff, etc.) Any weird
equipment that produces noises can be sampled and become
part of an arsenal. Go to it, and have fun.
Also see the techno section for related hints. Techno
and industrial are somewhat related.
Ambient music has some different considerations than
techno. For one, although ambient does use some of the
"bleepy" synths mentioned above in the techno
section, ambient tends to be a lot more subtle using
these instruments. Ambient music is more concerned with
the processed sound than the actual instrument itself,
in many cases.
Reverb and delay are critical in an ambient piece;
although the techno/dub forms of ambient use less FX
than the pure beatless form Brian Eno pioneered, they
still are a critical part of the ambient sound. There
are several out there; what type you like depends on
your personal preference. (I, for instance, chose a Boss
SE-70 due to its rather spacey sounding reverb and its
ability to do multi FX. Your mileage may vary). Much of
ambient uses sampling in some form or another (giving a
piece a more organic feel), so if anything, I'd advise
to get a sampler first. Instruments that emphasize sound
creation are the key; ambient is a genre that loves to
find ways of getting new, unique sounds. Those who are
uncomfortable with the LCD method of programming might
find it easier to lean towards synthesizers with knobs.
Analog synthesizers with knobs are particularly popular
in ambient, because of their warm sound and easy
programmability. But even with digital synthesizers
(including samplers), my feeling is that if you feel
comfortable programming it, the synthesizer is right for
ambient. I'd advise against sample-playback
synthesizers, though, because although sample playback
synthesizers can be uniquely programmed, the preset
samples are often not geared toward an experimental,
ambient viewpoint. Yeah, I know that sample playback
synthesizers are the majority of the store... and they
CAN be useful, but certainly not as a first purchase.
Sample playback synthesizers that can load in other
samples from an external source (such as the Yamaha
SY85/99, Generalmusic S series, Ensoniq TS series,
Alesis QS series) are fine if you are willing to learn
the system...
Brian Eno composed many ambient pieces with nothing
more than a Yamaha DX-7 and processing equipment (such
as delays, reverbs, etc.)... my personal ambient
compositions revolve mostly around a Yamaha TX16W
sampler, with pads and FX coming from a Oberheim Matrix
1000 and Roland Juno 106, among other synthesizers.
Groups like the Orb and Future Sound of London have tons
of equipment at their disposal, but some Aphex Twin
songs don't contain much more than a processed Oberheim
Matrix 1000 and samples. Ambient is VERY open ended on
how you create the piece - get something that allows you
to experiment.
For new synthesizers, I would look at samplers
(ranging from the budget Emu ESI-32 and Akai S1000, to
the more expensive Emu eIV, Kurzweil K2500, and Akai
S3200, and everything in between). I would also look at
synthesizers like the Nord Lead (which are easily
programmed), and the Prophecy (harder to program, but
very expressive). The Oberheim Matrix 1000, despite its
lack of programmability, is a cheap, 1U rack-mounted
warm analog synthesizer, and is nice for ambient. And
take a nice tour of the FX section. (:
Warm, swirly pads and realistic instruments. That
seems to be the two key requirements for a New Age
synthesizer for much of the genre. Of course, the New
Age genre is one of the most diverse categories in a
record store, covering everything from light jazz to
progressive rock. But these two requirements seem to
cover a good portion of the genre.
Korg seems to have a knack for making New Age
sounding synths (the whole 01/W and X series has a nice
midrange, which can be very nice. And the Korg
Wavestation is THE best swirling pad machine, my
opinion. I know modern Tangerine Dream is heavy into
Korg), but many other manufacturers have made synths
that are easily New Age. The Kurzweil K2000 workstation
seems to be popular among some composers (Constance
Demby does ALL her modern work on a K2000), for instance
- it is capable of producing nice swirly pads and good
realistic instruments. Ditto for the Yamaha SY series,
in particular the SY99 (David Parsons used that
synthesizer series a bundle). The Roland D-50
synthesizer is also very capable of making swirly pads
(although it is not very realistic by modern standards).
In the older days of so-called "New Age"
music, other synthesizers were notable. The Linndrum
drum machine in particular became a standard for New Age
drum machines. Vangelis had a sound dominated by the
Yamaha CS-80 (an old, EXTREMELY heavy polyphonic analog
synthesizer). Tangerine Dream became famous in the early
80s for compositions dominated by the PPG Wave
synthesizer (a wavetable synthesizer duplicated today by
the expensive Waldorf Wave and less expensive Waldorf
Microwave); in the mid-80s, the famous Emulator II
sampler became their instrument of choice. Progressive
electronic artists were very fond of the Prophet 5 (and
its close cousins, the Roland Jupiter 8 and 6) in the
early 80s. Before that, such electronic instruments as
the Mellotron (a tape loop playback system with a unique
sound), VCS 3 (aka the "Putney") and ARP 2600
were among those used.
Much of today's synthesizers will work for the New
Age market rather well. For a beginner, I would avoid
synthesizers with high learning curves (such as the
K2000/2500, or other samplers and workstations) and
analogs / analog emulators (which tend to be limited,
polyphony wise; not good for creating large held chords)
and focus on sample-playback synthesizers (many with
tons of swirly pad sounds for you to play on). Samplers,
analogs, and workstations are good for those who are
looking to either create their own sounds, or want a
more powerful built-in sequencer, and don't mind the
higher learning curve. Those with an interest in
creating a more ambient-like textures might want to read
on the ambient section. Although certain parts of New
Age (ie, space music) use effects greatly, others (ie,
light jazz) use them sparingly... nonetheless, FX is
always nice to have.
See the ambient section for related hints.
For traditional jazz and blues music, pure
synthesizer sounds are relatively uncommon. But organ
sounds are common, and one instrument led the pack in
creating the legendary blues/jazz organ sound: the
Hammond B3. This instrument is not a pure synthesizer
(like many electronic organs, in the sense that it
generates its sound mechanically and not electrically),
but the organ has a famous sound that has been found
throughout many jazz records. Hammond B3s and related
electronic organs are hard to find, but many companies
(including Hammond, in its XB series) have put out
Hammond B3 clones that claim to be close to the
original. Because a used Hammond B3 is so expensive,
they are probably good alternatives to the Hammond B3.
In addition, there are electronic Leslie simulators that
simulate one of the effects a Hammond B3 has (a Leslie
speaker is a speaker that creates a phase-like effect by
physically rotating the speaker cone in the cabinet. The
B3 has one of these, one of the unique characteristics
of its sound).
Many other organs have been used in traditional jazz
(Farfisa and Vox are the two other big rock/jazz organ
names) as well as rock blues compositions. However, in
recent years, jazz has incorporated many other keyboard
sounds into its lineup (especially with electronic jazz
musicians like Jan Hammer and Herbie Hancock in the
field). Realistic instruments, soothing pads, and organ
sounds seem to be the rule - sounds atypical of sample
based synthesizers and sampling synthesizers, and even
analog synthesizers for the soothing pads. (Some jazz
composers actually have quite a large, film-composer
size collection of synthesizers). If you are looking for
a non-organ keyboard, I think what you choose should
depends on budget and style. Experimental jazz musicians
will love sampling synthesizers for the ability to
create unique sounds. Other jazz musicians might
consider workstations, which contain sequencing
functions that might help out a live performance
scenario. For those who do not need these things, a mere
sample-based synthesizer might be all you need. The
sound you choose depends on what you like. (For
instance, I like the Alesis QS series for its piano
sound, but the Korg X series has warmer pads, in my
opinion... decisions, decisions. (: ) Weighted keyboards
may be an issue for those who are used to piano keys.
And don't forget about the used analogs. (: Focus in the
store on the type of instruments you desire.
Some of the New Age and film composing hints might be
helpful for those pursuing this genre.
Sample loops, sample loops, sample loops. That's a
large portion of what guides the grit behind today's
hip-hop and rap music. Like techno, hip hop has some
equipment that has gained somewhat of a legendary
status.
The first piece of equipment that has gained
legendary status is the Roland TR-808 drum machine. It
is this machine that produces the well-known
"boom" that rattles speakers and can be heard
for miles around. It's a piece of equipment that's
legendary in other circles, too (e.g. techno), so the
prices for this piece of machinery (which is not
available new) often hangs around $600. However, some
alternatives exist: Notably the Novation Drumstation
(which models the TR-808), samples of the machine, and
tons of drum machines and synthesizers which have a
TR-808 kit in them.
The second piece of equipment that has gained
legendary status is the Technics SL1200 turntable. Tons
of turntables exist, but this one seems to be popular
among anyone who spins as a DJ. They are expensive, but
very good - high quality, high torque, etc. Since this
is an electronic synthesizer FAQ, I won't discuss the
alternatives much here, but rest assured the turntable
plays an important part, and in my mind is used in
hiphop as an instrument itself.
A third piece of equipment, which is not as legendary
but is still important, is the Emu SP-1200 sampling
percussion machine. This machine is an easy to use drum
machine that can sample, and play back the samples
either through a sequencer or via a pad that is
triggered.. Although limited in sampling time, it
nonetheless has played a crucial role in some hip-hop
records. However, this equipment (which I believe is
still available new, albeit expensive: $2200 or so) can
easily be replaced by the more expensive, new Akai
MPC3000 (or other older sampling drum machines: The
Linndrum 9000, Emu SP-12, Akai MPC60, heck, even a Korg
DDD1 with a sampling card, for instance); or, if you are
willing to sacrifice the convenience of the drum machine
layout, a full-fledged sampler. (Full fledged samplers
tend to be cheaper, but they often don't include the
built in sequencer that a sampling drum machine does.
This makes live performances quite a bit more of a pain.
The Akai S950 rackmount sampler, though, is one sampler
that has been used some in hip hop, and is quite cheap
used. 12 bit samplers, such as the Roland S-series
sampler, might also be appropriate for hip-hop, even
with a "grungier" sound than 16 bit samplers.)
For the upstart rap/hip-hop artist: Personally, I
recommend that, if anything, get a sampler of some sort
(sampling drum machine or regular, whatever) and some
turntables. Rap is heavy on the drums, so collecting
various drum machines is also advisable. The TR-808 is
optional, but if you want that boom sound (not all
hip-hop uses it) and the nice soft drums that hip-hop
often uses, get either the original thing, or a
high-quality sample set of it. Some rap artists have
used old analog synthesizers (Snoop Doggy Dogg's famous
high-pitched whine), but I would focus on the more
critical elements first (sampler and turntables).
Churches almost exclusively depend on more realistic
sounds (ie, organ sounds) and soft, mellow electronic
sounds (electric pianos). But a further critical element
has to be explored before the church makes a decision on
buying a synthesizer: How the person is going to be
playing the keyboard live. This affects what type of
keyboard one should look for.
For those who do not intend to pre-compose parts (ie,
the entire performance is 100% live) on the synthesizer,
no sequencer is necessary. That way, they can look at
keyboards like the Alesis QS6, Korg X5, etc. that have
no sequencer. However, if at any time a person wants to
pre-compose a part (so they can hit a button on the
synthesizer marked "play" during the service,
and play, say, a piano part while the synthesizer is
playing a string section, organ section, etc.), a
sequencer is a must.
Weighted keys (keys that have more of a piano-like
feel to them) may be important for the piano players
(although organ players may feel more comfortable with
the standard non-weighted synthesizer keys). If the
church does not have an amplification system available,
a keyboard that has speakers (such as the Korg i series)
is also a must.
In general, I recommend a sample playback keyboard;
these are the easiest keyboards to use, and they produce
the most realistic sound. For those who are concerned
with the look of the equipment, they might want to
invest in a digital piano, which often contain the types
of sounds a church is looking for (piano, organ, etc.)
while being encased in a piano-like cabinet. (Note that
digital pianos are often considerably more expensive
than a synthesizer). Some churches might be more
comfortable staying away from synthesizers and focusing
on digital organs that give more organ options for the
church. Elsewise, the synth that balances realism and
cost will do.
General MIDI. You need it. Although I don't like the
standard, and the industry is moving away from it in
favor of CD soundtracks on the disk itself, there will
still be an occasional time where a General MIDI song is
required. Make sure one of your keyboards is a General
MIDI keyboard (almost all sample playback keyboards made
nowadays are General MIDI). It's a limiting system, but
it certainly is workable.
If you are composing for a soundtrack that will be
placed directly on the CD, see the general notes below
for film composers...
Film composers in general look for both realistic
sounds AND synthesizers that allow them to create
unique, thematic sounds. As a result, the synthesizers
that film composers tend to use are on the more
expensive order. Synthesizers for film composers should
be highly programmable, and highly expressive.
Synthesizers like the Korg Wavestation, Oberheim Matrix
12, Waldorf Wave, New England Digital Synclavier, the
Fairlight sampler, etc. have been highly popular with
film composers. Modular synthesizers have been popular
with film composers as well.
Building a home studio with these instruments (which
range from $1000 for a Wavestation to $6000 for a new
Waldorf Wave!) can be quite expensive. Nonetheless, I
advise the beginning film composer to look for
instruments that allow for flexible sound creation.
Almost all instruments on the professional level are
programmable in some form, but many of today's digital
instruments are difficult to program, and quite cryptic.
The best synthesizer compromise - but ones that usually
have higher learning curves and prices - are sampling
workstations (Kurzweil K2000, Emu eIV, etc.). These
instruments can produce realistic sounding instruments,
as well as giving you the chance to compose your own
sounds with very flexible program options. But that does
not mean that hard-coded sample-based synthesizers are
out (especially if you are just beginning, or are on a
budget). If you look for a sample-based synthesizer,
make sure to get a feel for the programming engine
first. Analogs are easier to create your own sounds
with, but on a budget, you might feel limited with an
analog (especially for creating realistic instruments).
Budget samplers are cheap (the Emu ESI-32 and Akai S1000
run in the $1000 range nowadays), and might provide a
better compromise if you already have a keyboard (all
these budget samplers are rackmounted).
Some of the general hints regarding New Age music
might be advisable here as well.
At some point, you are going to have to play with
your synthesizers live. Here lies a problem with
synthesizers - in many cases, they cannot be played live
easily. One of the advantages of synthesizers (you can
easily create a full composition in your own studio,
without the need for a band, using a machine) becomes a
disadvantage when playing live - no one wants to see a
performance played by a machine!
At some point, you have to decide the route you want
to take playing live. One option is to presequence
everything and bring a computer along with you. The
trouble is, even a small portable notebook computer may
turn people off who prefer the live concert experience.
Of course, you can always hide it. (: And some people
(like Chip Davis) I've seen actually integrate La
Machine into the performance. Unfortunately, there are
very few (if any) keyboard sequencers out there that
allow for live, improvisational performances (not even
MIDI-controlled track muting - Any computer sequencer
manufacturer listening? Hello?). Another option is to
prerecord parts of the concert on a DAT (Digital Audio
Tape) and play live parts over the top of this. This is
a little more hidden than a computer, but is even less
flexible than a computer (you can play around with a
computer sequence a bit if you play on the computer
during your performance. You can't do that with DAT -
there's only "play".) Unfortunately, that
seems to be the dominant mode of performances that I
have seen.
Hardware sequencers are available as well, with some
allowing flexible real-time sequencing (notably the more
expensive analog sequencers, such as the old ARP
sequencers et al that put the repeating notes in
Tangerine Dream; the sequencers found on Roland x0x
machines that techno loves; and the new analog MIDI
sequencers, such as the Doepfer MAQ 16/3). Others allow
for real-time track muting (the fairly popular Alesis
MMT8 sequencer), which is can be nice. Other hardware
sequencers, unfortunately, are no more flexible than a
software sequencer - but they do not have the stigma of
the DAT machine and computer.
Other people do live performances by using a
workstation. Workstations, in general, contain a built
in sequencer, where you can prerecord the parts of the
performance that you need to play, and then play a live
bit over the sequence you created. This creates a VERY
portable situation (you can do a concert with only a
Ensoniq ASR-10, Korg 01/W, Korg Trinity, etc. on stage),
which doesn't suffer as badly the stigma problems
associated with DATs and computers.
There are other ways to do a live performance. Some
people have fiddled around on programs like Max (Max is
a very powerful, easy to use program that allows you to
create customized MIDI applications for high-end users)
or simply programmed their own thing to create their own
improvisational software. Some people have done
wonderful things using simply an arpeggiator on a
synthesizer and triggered samples. Sampled loops would
be another way of performing live - just hold the sample
loop and trigger samples and other keyboards.
Unfortunately, though, the options are a bit more
limited than I personally like...
Another issue for the live performer is how much
equipment to take around with you. It's really a
judgement decision that has to be made - taking around
your whole studio allows for more flexibility, and looks
more impressive on stage (all those keyboards...), but
unfortunately it's a lot harder to set up and take down.
It's just another thing to consider for live
performances...
Another viewpoint...
From davep@alr.com Fri Apr 11 19:06:26 1997
From: "Dave P."
To: cgould@gate.net
Subject: Re: Draft of a Synthesizer FAQ (Part 3/5)
Hi Chad,
First, thanks much for all of the hard work that you have put into
this FAQ ! I hope it gets the attention it deserves.
I did want to comment on the section quoted above, though. I feel that
most synths, especially any synth that is programmable and can store
lots of patches, can be played live very easily. I performed live in
various progressive, metal, mainstream rock, new wave, and
experimental electronic bands on a daily basis for about fifteen years
(I'm mostly doing recording now). When I started, there were no
programmable synths, and I used an Arp 2600 and an Odyssey. Later, the
system was heavily customized to include Serge modules and joystick
controllers. Eventually, I was using a Chroma with a midi retrofit, an
Ensoniq VFX, an Emu Protues 1XR and Proteus 2, and an Oberheim Matrix
6R and Matrix 1000 all midi'd together, and all played live from the
Chroma keyboard. No computers, no sequencers.
In addition to all of the performance options you describe, I think it
is important to point out the option of this type of live performance
- getting into a band with other musicians, either with a real drummer
or a drum machine, and just jammin' live with real honest-to-goodness
keyboard playing, with no sync to any clock, using midi only as a
means to connect the modules to the keyboard controller.
Dave Peck
Aftershock Productions
I concur! That certainly is as valid of a way of
performing live as any. (:
The beginning composer in synthesizers might feel
overwhelmed by synthesizers at first. It's normal - the
world of synthesizers is a complicated world, in many
respects (like any other musical world).
My advise is to start it off slow. Simpler
synthesizers might allow you to get introduced into the
world a lot easier than going all out with a Kurzweil
K2000 right off the bat. If you don't care about
programming at all, a sample-based synthesizer probably
is right for you. Not only do most sample-based
synthesizers have easy access to the world of general
MIDI, they have nice realistic sounding instruments, and
tend to be easy to use (just select the patch number and
play). Unfortunately, most sample-based synthesizers
tend to be tougher to program, and are not appropriate
for all genres.
Another alternative is a simple analog synthesizer,
with knobs. Ideal is something like a Roland Juno 60 or
Juno 106 (which has patch memory, all of the parameters
up front with either sliders or buttons, a very easy to
use interface, and a nice sound. The Juno 106 even has
MIDI... I consider the series, personally, one of the
best synthesizers for a beginning analog disciple)...
but if you can't find that used, many of the monophonic
synthesizers made today have easy-to-program knobs and
might be idea for learning about analog. If you have
more cash, something like the Nord Lead might be more
idea (which is more complicated, but has knobs and a
very nice interface... and polyphony). Again, this isn't
for everyone, but for those into genres which require
sound generation or live tweaking (techno, industrial,
ambient, film, etc.), I would look into these
instruments first, even though you miss out on the
realistic instruments of the sample-based synthesizer.
Samplers tend to be the toughest synthesizers to
learn how to program (except for some of the sampling
drum machines or phrase samplers, which are designed to
play sample loops and small voice clips), so I would
avoid full fledged samplers if programming is not up
your alley. They do tend to be one of the most usable
synthesizer types in the field, though...
In conclusion: Go to it and good luck. (:
For the beginner, the dealer is probably the easiest
place to buy a synthesizer, and most reliable. In
general, most of the equipment in a reputable music
dealer's shop works well; and is fully warrantied so
that if something goes wrong, you can bring it back to
the dealer for repairs or a replacement.
The worst problem I've found with a dealer is some of
them tend to pressure you into taking a synthesizer that
you might not necessarily want. Some stores tend to
pressure you a lot more than others, to car-salesman
like proportions. As a result, I would advise you to use
the same technique you would use in buying a car: Come
armed with the knowledge beforehand. Know exactly what
TYPE of synthesizer you want, and a price range to
expect for the synthesizers you are looking for. Be firm
but kind with pressuring salesmen, and don't be afraid
to say no.
The net is an excellent place to research
synthesizers that you are looking for. More and more
stores are on the net nowadays, and its not a big hassle
emailing people for quotes on synthesizers. Be sure to
use this to your advantage: The best deal might not be
at your local hometown dealer.
Buying used synthesizers through local classified ads
is probably the safest way to buy a used synthesizer.
Often, you get all the accessories (power chords,
manuals, etc.) you need through this method, and it's
not as hard to get ripped off, as long as you have a
face-to-face encounter with the owner. An equipment
check is important (turn the synthesizer on, play with
the buttons, see if everything works like it should), of
course. For the beginner who may not be familiar with
the synthesizer, it is easier to talk with the owner of
the synthesizer and see if he's being truthful about why
the equipment is acting like it does.
The main disadvantage of using this method is the
price. Prices can be incredibly low for a particular
piece of gear; they also can be incredibly overstated as
well. A good idea is to check the large compilation of
Internet prices on a piece of gear (see ); if you have
access to a synthesizer blue book, even better.
Occasionally, one of the large synthesizer magazines
(Keyboard, etc.) will post a listing of prices for used
gear; although sometimes overinflated themselves, they
provide a good reference point.
Two Internet newsgroups, rec.music.makers.synth and
rec.music.makers.marketplace, often have synthesizers
and other electronic equipment posted for sale. In
addition, the World Wide Web has several places with
used equipment forums for people to sell and buy from.
The Internet tends to be a little bit more stable,
price-wise, than the classifieds (although
"trendy" pieces may cost more on the net).
However, it poses a greater risk, since you do not get
to test the equipment beforehand and make sure that it
works. Also, it is harder to send off money to someone
you may never meet in person. So it is a bit more risky.
Personally, however, I have had nothing but great
luck with the Internet. I have bought 4 synthesizers
from the net; all of them were in mostly good condition.
I do take the precaution of having the equipment sent
COD if possible. COD stands for Credit On Deposit, and
works as follows:
- The seller ships an item C.O.D. - a condition which
means that the piece of equipment cannot be delivered
unless the buyer pays a certain amount of money to the
postal service. He or she makes out the C.O.D. for the
price of the synthesizer, and is charged a C.O.D.
service charge in addition to the standard shipping fee.
- The seller gets the piece of equipment. At that time,
he pays the amount that the C.O.D. is due for, and
receives his or her merchandise.
If a piece of equipment is over a few hundred
dollars, I strongly urge people to use COD on shipping:
It allows a better piece of mind for the buyer (who
doesn't have to pay anything if the seller refuses to
send the equipment) and the seller (who doesn't get
ripped off if the buyer cannot pay for the equipment).
However, the downside to this method is C.O.D. is a VERY
expensive charge. For $1600 pieces of equipment, an
extra $10 for C.O.D. is not a problem, but for $30
pieces of equipment, $10 C.O.Ds become a major hassle.
Other, more trustworthy methods may be preferable.
Pawn shops tend to be the trickiest place to buy
synthesizers, from what I've found. For the beginner, I
would not recommend it. Pawn shop staff are unable to
help people who want to know how the synthesizer works.
Often basics such as the right AC adapter are not
available, let alone manuals. The equipment is often in
terrible condition, and if you are not familiar with the
synthesizer, it is hard to know what is
"normal" and what is not.
The advantage pawn shops have is price. Pawn shops
sometimes have the best bargains in the business, due to
that same ignorance about synthesizers that makes them
bad for beginners. This is especially true of smaller
pawn shops. Of course, the opposite is also true:
Sometimes pawn shops have terribly inflated prices! Pawn
shops, however, do tend to be the easiest places to
bargain with, so you might get a better deal even with
an inflated price.
For selling, pawn shops can be alright. The places
with blue books tend to give you a fair value for your
piece, and give the cash very quickly. Of course, you
run into some difficulties - I once had a hard time
explaining the concept of a drum machine I was selling.
It took a little bit to convince them that the condition
was excellent, and that it did what it was supposed to.
I noticed the drum machine also got sold in a month from
the shop. So much for that. (:
With the increasing amount of synthesizers, and the
lowering cost of studio equipment, it now is becoming
more and more sensible to produce a quality home studio
than ever. With that in mind, here is a brief overview
of some of the features of a home studio. I'm not going
to go into too much detail, but I think this will be
helpful for those who are wanting to get started in the
home studio world.
One of the great things that has happened over the
last few years has been the reduction in price of
mixers. Today, there are mixers out there that cater
towards the very small project studio, with very good,
professional sound. But a mixer can seem complicated to
a beginner.
The basic concept of a mixer is to take together
sound inputs from several sources and mix them all
together. In other words, all of the synthesizers,
microphones, guitars, etc. that you have can be mixed
into one track, through a variety of methods. The volume
of each source is controlled by a fader - providing an
easy way to mix things.
Most mixers offer a variety of features aside from
sheer volume. For instance, a mixer will have a certain
amount of channels. Each channel on a mixer
represents one input. Another common feature on a mixer
is a bus. A bus is sort of like a sub-mixer - a
channel can be assigned to a particular bus, and its
level can be set. Then, the total volume of that bus can
be raised and lowered by a fader. This is very useful
for certain applications (such as miking a drum - you
can have 8 channels used for a miked drum, but the total
volume of this drum can be raised and lowered with one
fader if they are all assigned to the same bus.) Many
mixers are often named after the number of channels
and/or buses they have. (IE, a Mackie 1604 has 16
channels, along with 4 buses.)
Almost all mixers today are stereo mixers, meaning
there are at least two channels in the output. With this
comes panning. Each channel will have a pan, usually, to
indicate where in the stereo plane you want the signal
to go to. You can send it to the left, right, the
middle, and anywhere in between.
Most mixers also have some sort of equalization
setting for each channel on them, so that the tone of
each channel can be controlled. The standard EQ setting
- high, middle, and low - is common, but some mixers
have stranger combinations to produce the equalization.
Many mixers will also allow you to solo a channel (so
you can hear only that channel, and set the level of
that channel individually), and mute channels. Many
mixers have separate outputs for the main bus (where all
the buses get mixed together) and the control room (for
monitoring the mix), allowing you to change the volume
and play with the mix without disturbing the recording.
Another thing that is found on mixers is auxiliary
(aux for short) inputs. Auxiliary inputs act as another
mixer, in a sense. For each channel, you have an aux
output send knob. This controls how much of the signal
is sent to the aux output. This aux output can be routed
through FX boxes, compressors, EQ, etc. and sent back to
the aux input, to create what is known as an effects
loop. The aux output can also be used for other
purposes.
Mixers come in several varieties. For home use, the
most popular is the small analog mixer provided by many
companies (Mackie, Soundcraft, etc.). These mixers often
give great sound at a fraction of the price of the large
mixers, but have less channels and busses to work with.
Still, they leave room for upgrade, and the difference
between a tabletop mixer like the Mackie MS1202 and a
professional mixer like the Mackie 8-bus revolves in the
number of channels, number of buses, and number of extra
features.
Starting to become popular and affordable are digital
mixers. Digital mixers have most of the same features as
an analog mixer, but offer the advantage of less hiss,
some digital-only control features, and, most
importantly, automation. Automation is very difficult
and expensive for analog features; digital mixers offer
the unique ability of being able to record your mix into
the sequencer like any other keyboard. They are still
expensive (Yamaha's digital mixers are about 3-4 times
the price of an equivalent analog mixer), but they are
coming down in price, and might make an impact later in
the marketplace...
At the VERY high end of the mixers spectrum, a mixer
becomes semi-modular - where each channel strip is a
module in itself, and you add features simply by adding
modules to the mixer unit. Most mixers designed for home
studios, however, are self-contained, and contain
buttons to produce the nice routing options the high-end
mixers have.
Another thing that helps in a home studio is an FX
box. Most recordings nowadays use at least some effects
in their recordings - whether it be a chorus to fatten
the sound up, a little bit of reverb to make the sound
more natural and less dry, or special effects such as
phasers.
The variety of effects boxes is astounding, but if I
were to purchase an effects box, I would probably go for
one that had a multitude of effects that you can chain
up. Some effects boxes are designed for specific
purposes (e.g., reverb), and while that is very nice
once you have an effects box (i.e., a standalone reverb
box frees up your other box to do other things), I would
consider having a large quantity of decent quality
effects to be more important. That doesn't mean, of
course, that you should buy a box with tons of
crappy-sounding FX. (: One should balance between price
and performance...
Incidentally, most effects boxes are rack-mount
instruments (or at least have that ability). Also,
terminology wise, a signal is described as
"wet" when recorded with effects, and
"dry" when recorded without.
Now for the fun part: Putting your stuff on tape.
With MIDI sequencers, it certainly is possible simply to
take an old tape deck and use that to record your songs.
But there are a wide variety of other options out there,
including some options that allow you to record in a
better and more powerful manner. Among them are the
following:
The newest method of recording at home is something
called hard disk recording. Hard disk recording is where
you actually use your computer to store the recording of
each track digitally. The digital recording allows you
to ping-pong (record one track onto another while
simultaneously adding new sounds) easily; in fact, with
computers, your track space is only as limited as your
hard drive space. (Oh, by the way, a track is
simply a channel of recorded audio information, in terms
of tapes and recordings.)
Equipment wise, there is plenty out there. There are
many pieces of gear which only use the computer as an
interface; all the recording is done in a separate box.
At the opposite end of the spectrum is a completely
software based solution, where the only piece of
hardware used is a card to translate sound into digital
(ie, something like the Card D+). The rest is controlled
by software, using your hard drive and computer to
control the software.
Many sequencers (Cakewalk Pro Audio, Cubase Pro
Audio, etc.) have options which allow you to record
audio and integrate the audio with MIDI sequences.
In order to do hard disk recording, however, you may
have to spend a lot. The computers that can do hard disk
recording should be powerful (ie, Pentiums or PowerPCs
are optimal). Even more importantly, a TON of hard disk
space is needed to store the digital recording. At least
a gigabyte of hard disk space free is recommended; more
is desirable for more complex tracks. The equipment for
hard disk recording isn't cheap, either: The Card D+
goes for $500+, for instance, and other, more
hardware-based HD recording options go for much more.
But with the advent of CD-Rs that allow you to write
a CD inside the computer (for $500 or less), you can
make a master without ever even traversing cable and
using a DAT machine. That thought might be pretty
appealing, and a good reason to consider hard disk
recording in the future.
DAT is probably the cheapest way to get a good
studio-quality master. DAT, or Digital Audio Tape, is
simply a piece of tape where digital information is
recorded instead of analog. The benefits, compared to
analog tape, are less hiss, a better sound (at least
compared to consumer tapes), and the ability to
duplicate and ping-pong easier. Many studios use DAT
machines as a way to make a good-quality master, from
which a CD can easily be made. The problem is, DATs only
have two stereo tracks.
ADAT machines, made primarily by Alesis, take the
concept of the DAT and go one step further. An ADAT
machine has 8 tracks on it. So, in essence, an ADAT is
like a digital 8-track machine, with all the benefits of
a 4-track type device and DATs. They run more expensive
than a plain DAT machine ($2500 compared to $800), and
are more expensive than comparable analog 8-tracks
($2500 compared to $1000), but may be worth it to those
wanting a high-quality digital sound.
With all of this digital technology around, let us
not forget the good ol' 4 track. (: A 4-track recorder
is a recorder that can record on 4 tracks, either
simultaneously, separately, or with tracks ping-ponged
to each other. The advantage of a 4-track for home use
is that the tapes are cheap: It simply uses a standard
consumer audio tape, and records only in one direction.
(A standard audio cassette has 4 tracks, 2 for each
side, in order to give two stereo sides of recording.)
4 tracks have become remarkably cheap over the years,
with a nice variety of features, and are the cheapest
way to make a demo short of using a plain cassette
recorder.
Many tape devices are not MIDI enabled, and therefore
cannot use MIDI clocks to start and stop when the MIDI
sequencer starts. Instead, there are a few ways that
tape devices synchronize themselves to the MIDI devices.
One of these methods is simply known as
"sync". Tape recorders with sync have jacks
with a sync in and a sync out. This allows you to start
and stop the tape recorder through a special pulse code
sent through these jacks. There are devices available
that allow you to convert from the MIDI clock (which
sends its own special start and stop codes) and the sync
jacks normally used.
A special time code that is used heavily in the video
world is known as SMPTE. From the Sonic Foundry web page
(makers of Sound Forge, a popular hard disk recording
program), here is an explanation of the world of SMPTE
found there:
The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE)
time code may be one of the most misunderstood concepts
among individuals within the music industry. After
working with SMPTE time code for years, many people are
still confused by the concept, so don't feel bad if you
haven't got it all figured out. Hopefully this
discussion will clear the mud.
The biggest problem with SMPTE time code is that,
depending on whether you sit on the video or audio side
of the fence, SMPTE time codes may mean different things
to you. When dealing with SMPTE you will probably see
five, perhaps six, different types of time codes formats
(six is for the people who are really confused).
Following is a description of each SMPTE time code
format.
SMPTE 25 EBU
This SMPTE code runs at 25 frames per second and is
also known as SMPTE EBU (European Broadcasting Union).
The reason for having this rate is that European
television systems run at exactly 25 frames per second.
SMPTE 24 Film Sync
This SMPTE code runs at 24 frames per second and is
also known as SMPTE Film Sync. This rate matches a
nominal film rate of 24 frames per second (the slowest
speed possible for apparent continuous motion).
OK, those two are easy. Now things start to get a little
crazy.
SMPTE 30 Non-Drop (as used in the audio world)
In the US, the 60 Hz power system makes it easy to
generate a time code rate of 30 frames per second. This
rate is commonly used in audio environments and is
typically known as 30 Non-Drop. You will probably use
this rate when synchronizing audio applications like a
multi-track recorder or your MIDI sequencer. If all
you care about is working with audio and not dealing
with video, stop reading right here. We mean it! All
you really need to know is that there are three
different SMPTE rates you might want to use: SMPTE 24,
SMPTE 25, and SMPTE 30 Non-Drop. However,
be aware that SMPTE 30 Non-Drop in the video world runs
at 29.97 frames per second.
True SMPTE 30 Drop and SMPTE 30 Non-Drop (as used in
the video world)
If you are planning to work with video, the frame
rate of exactly 30 frames per second is never used. When
NTSC color systems were developed, the frame rate was
changed by a tiny amount to eliminate the possibility of
crosstalk between the audio and color information. Even
though it is still referred to as SMPTE 30 Drop or
Non-Drop, the actual frame rate that is used is exactly
29.97 frames per second. This poses a problem since this
small difference will cause SMPTE time and real time
(what your clock reads) to be different over long
periods. Because of this, two methods are used to
generate SMPTE time code in the video world: Drop and
Non-Drop.
In SMPTE Non-Drop, the time code frames are always
incremented by one in exact synchronization to the
frames of your video. However, since the video actually
plays at only 29.97 frames per second (rather than 30
frames per second), SMPTE time will increment at a
slower rate than real world time. This will lead to a
SMPTE time versus real time discrepancy. Thus, after a
while, we could look at the clock on the wall and notice
it is farther ahead than the SMPTE time displayed in our
application.
SMPTE Drop time code (which also runs at 29.97 frames
per second) attempts to compensate for the discrepancy
between real world time and SMPTE time by
"dropping" frames from the sequence of SMPTE
frames in order to catch up with real world time. What
this means is that occasionally in the SMPTE sequence of
time, the SMPTE time will jump forward by more than one
frame. The time is adjusted forward by two frames on
every minute boundary except 00, 10, 20, 30, 40 , and
50. Thus when SMPTE Drop time increments from
00:00:59:29, the next value will be 00:01:00:02 in SMPTE
Drop rather than 00:01:00:00 in SMPTE Non-Drop. In SMPTE
Drop, it must be remembered that certain codes no longer
exist. For instance, there is no such time as
00:01:00:00 in SMPTE Drop. The time code is actually
00:01:00:02.
When synchronizing audio to video, it is crucial that
the SMPTE time code(30 Drop or Non-Drop) used in your
sequencer or digital audio workstation is the same as
the SMPTE time code striped onto the video. Only then
will the SMPTE times on the video screen and computer
monitor match exactly during playback.
In the audio world, people have started to call 30
Non-Drop (which runs at 29.97 frames per second)
29.97-Non-Drop to distinguish it from the 30 Non-Drop
used between audio applications (which runs at a true 30
frames per second). SMPTE 30 Drop (as used in video) may
also be referred to as SMPTE 29.97 Drop just to
reiterate that the frame rate is actually 29.97 frames
per second. It just depends on who you talk to.
However, you must remember that there is no difference
between 30 Drop and 29.97 Drop time code. There are
those who have tried to say that there is such a thing
as a SMPTE time code which actually runs at 30 frames
per second and generates "drop frames".
This practice would be silly, as the whole point of a
SMPTE Drop time code is to make up for the discrepancy
between the 29.97 frames per second "video"
rate and the 30 frames per second "real time"
rate.
(Once again, thanks to Sonic Foundry for the above
explanation.)
As mentioned before, there are alternatives to the
SMPTE / Sync synchronization methods and MIDI clocks.
One of these alternatives is Roland DIN/Sync. For more
information on how to keep time with early Roland
instruments, see the DIN Sync FAQ at http://www.citenet.net/noise/202/dinfaq1.
YES, it is possible to synchronize Roland’s DIN Sync
methods to the MIDI clock, just like there are devices
to convert the MIDI clock’s start/stop codes to the
standard tape sync’s start/stop codes.
Other peripherals
There are other peripherals mentioned. Probably the
two most common extra peripherals are equalizers and
compressors. Equalizers are used to help adjust the tone
of the sound. Adding an equalizer to an instrument can
either soften it down or make it sparkle more, or bring
out the bass. Compressors are devices that soften the
peaks and the lows that a piece goes through. A
standalone compressor is a nice detail in any studio.
Aside from that, there are several extra things –
each claiming to help the sound in a way. How you route
your studio is largely up to you – but make sure you
have the important things (a way to record, a mixer to
mix, and some speakers + amp to hear what you are
playing) first.
XI. A brief guide to programming your own sounds
Programming your sounds may sound like a complicated
task at first. It really isn’t. If you’ve read this
FAQ, you understand the components of the synthesizer to
some extent. A basic understanding of the components,
and a little bit of familiarizing yourself with the
abstract language of each synthesizer is all you need.
Synthesizer components can really be divided into
three parts:
- Modules that generate sound.
- Modules that alter the quality of the sound.
- Modules that control and alter the generators or
the tone.
Usually, I begin with the SOUND GENERATORS. These
vary in function, and range from analog oscillators
(often called VCOs) to a sample. This is the fundamental
place where sound is created. Picking the right wave can
be important in determining exactly how the patch will
sound later. Do you want a harsh wave? Use sawtooth
waves. Do you want a soft wave? Use sine waves. Do you
want something in between? Squares are nice. Or, in 2
VCO machines, you can mix and match. With samplers, you
can either try for a detailed patch that simulates and
instrument (by sampling an instrument itself). Or you
can simply pick a random sound and process it through
the other parts of the synthesizer.
I then gauge a general idea of what type of control I
want over the tone of the sound and the generated
sounds. Components such as LFOs (Low Frequency
Oscillators) and Envelopes are generally used to control
and shape how a signal works. For instance, you can feed
an LFO (up and down voltage) into the VCO pitch and
create vibrato (up and down pitch). You can feed an
envelope (a shaped voltage) into the filter frequency
cutoff to make the frequency cutoff move with the
voltage, for a more instrument like effect.
Although digital synthesizers often operate much
different than their analog counterparts, it is a good
idea to familiarize yourself with analog programming.
The idea of voltage helps a lot: once you understand
that every component is simply producing a voltage, and
that this voltage can either add or subtract from
various components, it makes knowing how to get a sound
much easier.
I then follow up with the SIGNAL PROCESSORS,
components that alter the quality of the sound. The two
most common examples of this are the VCA (used to change
the volume of the synthesizer) and the VCF (used to
change the tonal quality of the synthesizer). Here is
where you shape the sound, using LFOs, VCAs, and other
components. Want to create a wooowwrr effect? Hook the
LFO to the VCF (or filter) cutoff point. Want to shape
the sound more like a piano? Set the envelope right,
hook it to the VCA, and it works.
In digital synthesizers, there is often a general
"volume envelope" instead of a VCA, as well as
"pitch envelopes" and "filter
envelopes". They work exactly as if you connected
an envelope to the volume, pitch, filter, etc. – no
difference except terminology, really.
Above all, experiment. My first programming jobs were
done on a DX27. I learned how to program the synthesizer
merely by playing with it – seeing what each parameter
does when you changed the value. I encourage people to
get simpler synthesizers – simple analogs with knobs
make for excellent tools for people wanting to learn how
to program, as all the parameters are out in front of
you, and most of them will have a visible effect. The
digitals of today unfortunately are harder to program,
and many are very complicated, with tons of parameters
and options, seeming daunting to the new programmer…
in contrast, a monophonic bass synthesizer (Novation
Bassstation, etc.) or an old polyphonic (like the Roland
Juno 106) is easy to use and easy to learn how to
program on.
XII. 11 notable synthesizers in history
OK, so this is really a disputed category. Everyone
kind of has their favorite synths, and there are really
many synths that are fairly notable in the electronic
field. How does one decide what makes a great
synthesizer? From my perspective, it is a synthesizer
that has changed the field of music as we know it today.
That does not necessarily mean that it is the most
popular synthesizer around. But it means that somehow,
there was a technique in this synthesizer that either
got picked up in other synthesizers, or shaped the
course of the synthesizer as we know it today. With that
in mind, here are the 11…
- Early Moog modulars.
Moog's modulars were not
the first to be commercially built; Don Buchla's
synthesizers were earlier, and included the notable
concept of a sequencer. However, Robert Moog's
modulars (sold around the late 60s through the 70s)
were more important, in that they defined the standard
used by analog synthesizers around the world: A
musical voltage control. The Moog modulars used a
control voltage, with a setting of one volt per
octave, to generate the functions needed: Pitch in a
VCO, filter cutoff in a VCF, and volume in a VCA.
Envelopes, LFOs, and keyboards could produce the
necessary voltage needed. Although Buchla's modular
synthesizers were controlled by voltage as well, their
setting was more experimental and not idea for setting
up tones like the Moog's was. A simple concept, one
that helped break the idea of synthesizers out of the
experimental level to the public eye.
- Moog Minimoog.
Easily one of the most
important synthesizers in the synthesizer history. In
1969, the Moog concept was designed to solve the
problem presented with modules: patch chords. Although
patch chords allowed you to route anything to
anything, they produced a huge network of visual
confusion, and it took time to reconnect patch chords.
The Minimoog was the solution to this: hardwired
modules connected by switches and knobs. The action
moved synthesizers from the studio to the live
performance: its easier to carry a Minimoog to a
performance than a whole module. From then on, the
dominant keyboard in the marketplace is the
"hardwired" keyboard. But the popularity
(which was slow at first, but boomed in the early 70s)
has more to do with the portability: it has to do with
the sound. The Minimoog bass sound has become one of
the most well-known and loved sounds in electronic
music, and the filter has been described in loving
tones. Easily a classic.
- Prophet 5.
No, the Prophet 5 was NOT the first
polyphonic synthesizer to appear on the marketplace.
Others, such as Yamaha’s CS-80, appeared before then
(the CS-80 is notable for being the crux of
Vangelis’s late 70s / early 80s sound). But the
Prophet 5 is a good example, along with the Jupiter 8
and others, of the CEM chip sound. Dave Smith, who
started off Sequential Circuits by selling sequencers,
designed the keyboard, and it became THE polyphonic
keyboard of the late 70s and the 80s. It was used
heavily by Peter Gabriel and others. The real
innovation is in the integrated chips, where a single
VCO, VCF, or VCA can be put in one linear IC. The
Prophet 5 used this, which made for a much more
compact solution to the polyphony problem (as using
discrete chips would make for a REALLY large and bulky
synthesizer). Another innovation is in the Prophet 5's
true programmability. The Prophet 5 was the first
synth to digitize the synth settings and store them in
RAM. This was a tremendous help to players wanting to
be able to call up their patches live. Polyphonic
synthesizers appeared afterwards in huge numbers, all
using some form of integrated linear IC.
- New England Digital Synclavier.
The New
England Digital Synclavier was an innovative
synthesizer in many ways. Although it was expensive,
and rarely used outside the film / experimental world,
the synthesizer had many components that migrated to
future synthesizers. First of all, the Synclavier was
the first commercially successful synthesizer to use
digital FM technology. Although the concepts were
around beforehand, the Synclavier was the first to
push it into the mainstream, making companies l ike
Yamaha take notice. Secondly, the Synclavier
integrated a computer into the process. The computer
could do many things, such as sequence and program
parameters. Later models could even sample. In effect,
the Synclavier was the first of what would later be
known as the workstation – a synthesizer that
could sequence, sample, play, score, and do all the
things you need to do. Later companies introduced
workstations that were less bulky (ie, the Ensoniq
ESQ-1, the Korg M1, etc.), but the concept was
introduced here. Frank Zappa was a big fan of the
Synclavier for composing and scoring.
- Fairlight CMI.
In the 1970s, a groupe of
people in Sydney, Austraila, began working on a
computer controlled synthesizer. What they ended up
with, however, was something totally different: They
ended up with a sampler. The sampler redefined
electronic music, by making tape loops and tape
samples tons easier to process. Although the CMI was
expensive, the ability of the CMI to edit and create
sounds, sequence, and control the keyboard through a
graphic light-pen interface was appealing. Jean-Miche
l Jarre was a heavy user of the CMI in his earlier
concepts. And it inspired the next wave of samplers…
- Emu Emulator.
Emu started off as a company
doing modular synthesizers in the 70s. However, the
direction of Emu changed completely when Dave Rossum,
the founder of Emu systems, first saw the CMI in 1980.
He figured there must be an easier way to do
sampling… and, presto, a year later, a prototype of
the Emulator I was produced. The sampling interface
was simple, the concepts were easy to understand, and
the price ($8,000) was considerably lower than the CMI.
From there on, Emu took off and becam e a dominant
sampling company, producing the Emulator II in 1984
– with longer sampling times, a sequencer, and
multisampling. Some of the sounds that became
standards in the mid 80s (such as the Emulator II
shakuhachi patch), and still remain in force today.
Some bands (Depeche Mode, for instance) still tour
dominantly with Emulator IIs.
- Yamaha DX7.
Yamaha had been developing FM
technology in keyboards for some time, but it was with
this keyboard that digital synthesizers took off,
dominated analog synthesizers, and until recently,
have never looked back. The reasons were simple: It
was an FM synthesizer, creating complex sounds that
until then were only possible with expensive machines.
It was digital, with an easy "pick a patch with a
button" interface. It had the newly introduced
MIDI interface for easy control. And it cost less than
$2000. It was the first truly affordable digital
synthesizer. And it was a huge success, becoming one
of the best-selling and most known synthesizers ever.
From 1983 to 1987, a large percentage of songs hitting
the market had DX-7 sounds in them. Easily one of the
most notable synthesizers in history – a synthesis
of developing ideas at affordable prices.
- Roland TR-808.
Programmable rhythm machines
were not around until the late 1970s. That is when
Roland introduced their CR series, which I believe are
the first programmable drum machines ever. Until then,
the only rhythm units had been preset patterns, which
couldn’t be reprogrammed into something else. But
the true synthesis of the programmable drum machines
came with the Roland TR-808, introduced in 1980. The
machine proved to be fairly popular: it had an easy to
use interface and decent soundi ng analog drums.
However, despite the fact that other, sample-based
drum machines overtook the TR-808 in popularity in the
80s (a notable example is the Linndrum, whose drum
sounds defined much of the electronic early 80s
tunes), the TR-808 came back in the late 80s when
hip-hop artists discovered that you can tune the bass
drum sound of the TR-808 to produce an extraordinary
sine-wave boom that rattles speakers and can be heard
for miles around.
- Roland TB-303.
Before techno, this instrument
wouldn’t have even made the list. But since techno,
this instrument has become THE sound to have, with its
unique whining resonance being critical to many techno
songs. Its success is almost accidental: It was
originally designed as a synthesizer to emulate a bass
guitar. But with the right parameter adjustments, it
gives that nice wet filter sound that many Rolands of
this time have, with some unique distortion in the
resonance that makes this instru ment beloved by many.
Not a unique synthesizer as a whole (most of the
elements in it have been done before in other
synthesizers), but a unique way of putting it
together.
- Roland D-50.
The D-50 was designed in many
ways to be a success for Roland, like the DX-7 was for
Yamaha. It worked: The D-50 was one of the most
popular synthesizers in the 1980s. And it helped
defined the state of today’s sample-based
synthesizers. It was one of the first synthesizers to
have built in sample ROM that can be used as an
oscillator. The samples were short (on the theory that
the attack is the most important portion of the
synthesizer, and that the attack produces realism) -
but it was enough to give the synthesizer a good
sound. Another big thing in the synthesizer that gave
the D-50 the edge was a fairly complete built in
effects system: reverb, chorus, equalizer. Many
synthesizers had built in FX before (such as a single
chorus unit or reverb unit), but none with the level
the D-50 had. After the D-50, sample-based
synthesizers almost always arrived with a complete FX
system inside to beef up the sound. Add a digital
analog emulation, and you had a very warm synthesizer
that produ ced a LARGE portion of the synth sounds of
the late 80s. Other synthesizers (such as the Korg M1,
with its multitimbral mode) helped define the state of
today’s sample-based synthesizer further, but the
D-50 was the start of synthesizers moving towards the
completely sample-based level.
- Yamaha VL1.
This last one is tricky, as it was
not a particular success due to its cost. But it seems
to be the beginning of a new era of synthesizers:
modeling. The Yamaha VL1 was the first commercially
available modeling synthesizer on the market. It was
expensive, and could only do a few things (such as
play a saxophone). But it could do those things very
well. And it inspired a new round of modeling
synthesizers: analog modelers (such as the Clavia Nord
Lead) and ones that can do all sorts of wacky modeling
effects (the Korg Prophecy, a low-priced solo
synthesizer that HAS been a commercial success). Like
the Synclavier and Fairlight, the VL1 may be seen as
the start of a new beginning.
XIII. For the technocrats: Building your own
synthesizers
I’m not going to go into too much detail here –
this is more for beginners, after all. (: Nevertheless,
it is EASILY possible to build your own synthesizer if
you are into electronics and can do simple electronics
assembly – especially analog synthesizers. Analog
synthesizers, after all, are nothing more then
applications of common electronic circuits (such as the
oscillator, filter, and amplifier).
Many people look at building your own synthesizer as
a way of saving money. Most home-built synthesizers tend
to be modulars, and from that perspective you DO save
money (vs. buying a new modular synthesizer). However,
compared to the cost of buying a pre-wired synthesizer,
a modular still will be more expensive (especially
considering the cost of panels and PCBs – for the
hobbyist, the highest costing part of a do-it-yourself
synthesizer). It certainly DOES take a lot of time to
complete – and a fair in vestment in money. If you are
unfamiliar with electronics, I wouldn’t recommend it.
Nevertheless, many would be interested in doing
synthesizers yourself. After all, it is your
synthesizer, it is unique, and its fun to build. (:
There is a mailing list devoted to this subject, and it
is an excellent place to start. You can access this
mailing list at:
http://www.sara.nl/Rick.Jansen/Emusic
This page not only contains links to the Synth-DIY
list, it also contains links to other DIY projects. The
Music Machine pages of Hyperreal (http://www.hyperreal.com/music/machines/)
also contain several schematics for do-it-yourselfers.
XIV. Synthesizer publications
These are magazines that are mostly dedicated to the
art of electronic music: synthesizers, keyboards, and
the like. While many other magazines review electronic
equipment, these have the focus.
I am sure I am missing several magazines in this
list, so email me at cgould@gate.net
to be included!
Address:1601 W. 23rd St. Suite 200
Lawrence, KS 66046-0127
Phone: 1-800-289-9919 (US)
WWW: http://www.keyboardmag.com/
Email: nfi@neodata.com
Subscription: $25.95, 12 monthly issues
Phone:+44 1225 822511
Fax:+44 1458 274378
Web:http://www.futurenet.co.uk/
Email:subs@futurenet.co.uk
Subscription:45 pounds, monthly
Address:Subscription, Customer Service
PO Box 41525
Nashville, TN 37204
Phone:1-800-843-4086
Email:sunbeltful@aol.com
Address:Media House
Trafalgar Way
Bar Hill
Cambridge CB3 8SQ
United Kingdom
Phone: +44 (0)1954 789 88
Web: http://www.sound-on-sound.co.uk/
Email:publisher@sospubs.co.uk
XV. Synthesizer
resources on the net
Here’s some very good places to start looking at on
the net. This tends to be more general, and not specific
– there’s plenty of places which are incredibly
specific, covering one synthesizer only in detail!
If anyone has any good general, link-related
resources they would like to add to this list, feel
free. This is BY FAR incomplete!
http://www.xs4all.nl/~rexbo/index.htm
– Digital Sound page, a comprehensive page on
sampling.
http://www.midifarm.com/
- The MIDI Farm, a nice place with links and MIDI files.
http://www.eeb.ele.tue.nl/midi/index.html
– MIDI Home Page, a long-lasting and nice resource for
MIDI users.
http://www.midiweb.com/
- Another very large site dedicated to MIDI.
http://www.synthzone.com/
- Everything you want to know about the synthesizer.
http://netrunner.net/~jshlackm/index.html
– A large collection of MIDI and musician links.
http://www.aitech.ac.jp/~ckelly/SMF.html
– A collection of links for Standard MIDI files on the
net.
http://www.hyperreal.com/music/machines
- Music Machines, a good collection of analog
synthesizer archives.
XVI.
Acknowledgements, revision history, and conclusion
I would like to acknowledge the following web sites,
books, and other places of research
- cbm@headspace.com
for help on the synthesis section.
- pHreak@techno.org
for some pointers to Keyboard Magazine’s reference
library, where another good introduction to
synthesizers exists.
- Electric Sound: The Past and Promise of
Electronic Music
, by Joel Chadabe. Much of the
historical information and trivia comes from this
book.
- http://www.keyboardmag.com/
for some clarification on some of the vocabulary
terms (and being a good reference book!)
- The folks who wrote the manuals for all my
keyboards: The Korg X5, Roland D-50 and Juno 106,
Oberheim Matrix 1000, Yamaha DX27, and the Typhoon
OS for the TX16W. They were helpful in gathering
terms. Some manuals actually were well written.
- Atomic@netcom.com
for the tracking generator explanation
- http://www.neuroinformatik.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/ini/PEOPLE/heja/sy-prog/node63.html
– it had a good description of synthesizer
techniques already written up.
- Paul Reller, whose electronic music class added to
some of the terms.
- cgould@gate.net
VERSION HISTORY:
04/08/97 - Version 0.1a - First release to the
public! Pre-web page post. And its BIG.
04/11/97 - Version 0.2 - Some minor corrections.
Posted to the web page!
05/01/97 - Version 0.3 - More minor corrections.
(C) 1997 Chad Gould
|
|
